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This  book  may  be  kept  out  TWO  WEEKS 
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CENTS  a  day  thereafter.  It  is  due  on  the 
day  indicated  below: 


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TREES  IN  WINTER 


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•T 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS    •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


Oak  and  Chestnut  in  winter  and  in  summer 


TREES    IN    WINTER 

THEIR   STUDY 

PLANTING,  CARE  AND 

IDENTIFICATION 

BY 
ALBERT  FRANCIS  BLAKESLEE,  Ph.  D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  BOTANY'  AND 
DIRECTOR  OF  SUMMER  SCHOOL 
CONNECTICUT  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

AND 

CHESTER  DEACON  JARVIS,  Ph.  D., 

HORTICULTURIST,  STORRS 
EXPERIMENT    STATION 


ILLUSTRATED 


'^m  IJTark 

THE     MACMILLAN     COMPANY 
1913 

A//  rights  resettled 


Copyright,  1913, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  January,  1913. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PEEFACE  7-10 

INTRODUCTION 

THE  STUDY  OF  TEEES 11-30 

Tree  identification — Tree  study  in  relation  to  poetry  and 
art — tree  photography — tree  ecology — tree  measurement 
— tree  collections — tree  study  in  high  schools  and 
colleges — field  work — students'  collections — tree  study  in 
graded  schools. 

PART  I.,  PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 

CHAPTEE  I 

STEUCTUEE,  LIFE  AND  GEOWTH  OF  A  TEEE 31-45 

The  parts  of  a  tree — the  root — the  leaf — the  stem — 
reproduction. 

CHAPTEE  II 

THE  PEOPAGATION  OF  TEEES 46-60 

Propagation  from  seeds — nature's  way — the  forest  nursery 
— collecting  seeds  for  planting — storing  seeds — testing 
the  vitality  of  seeds — planting  seeds — care  of  seedlings — 
transplanting — propagation  by  cuttings — making  cuttings 
— setting  cuttings — propagation  by  graftage — grafting — 
budding. 

CHAPTEE  III 

TEEE  PLANTING  IN  EUEAL  DISTEICTS 61-74 

The  conservation  of  good  scenery — a  national  park  system 
— sign  boards  must  go — arousing  interest — the  problem 
of  the  country  roads — making  the  best  use  of  existing 
conditions — roadside  planting — the  use  of  trees  around  the 
home — adaptation — the  function  of  trees  in  home  de- 
coration— shrul)s — planting  for  winter  effect — the  planting 
plan — the  finished  picture. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

TREE  PLANTING  IN  TOWNS  AND  CITIES 75-95 

Trees  in  relation  to  city  life — suggestions  for  street 
planting — arrangement  of  trees  on  the  street — parking 
strips — permanent  and  temporary  planting — the  l)cst 
species  for  city  streets — trees  of  rapid  growth — municipal 
control  of  shade  trees — parks  and  public  sqnares — the 
natural  type — the  artificial  style — planting  suggestions 
for  city  homes — types  of  city  homes — the  suburban 
lot — back  yard  planting. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  SELECTION  OF  TREES  FOR  SPECIAL  PUR- 
POSES      06-101 

Trees  with  showy  flowers — blooming  before  or  with  the 
leaves — blooming  after  the  leaves — trees  with  showy  fruits 
— trees  with  strikingly-colored  foliage — trees  with 
brilliant  autumnal  tints — deciduous  trees  valued  for 
their  winter  effects — very  tall  trees — columnar  or 
narrow  pyramidal  trees — weeping  trees — trees  resistant 
to  smoke — desirable  shade  and  avenue  trees — trees  for 
seaside  planting — trees  for  dry  situations  and  dry 
climates — trees  best  adapted  to  wet  soils — trees  best 
adapted  to  calcareous  or  limestone  soils — varieties  of  fruit 
trees  for  home  planting — apples,  pears,  quinces,  peaches, 
plums,  cherries. 


CHAPTER  YI 

HOW  TREES  ARE  PLANTED 102-113 

Preliminary  considerations — prune  before  planting- 
preparing  the  ground — staking  the  ground — setting  the 
trees — time  to  plant — making  the  holes  and  filling  in — 
moving  large  trees — staking  and  guarding  young  trees — 
stakes — guards — grills. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CAEE  OF  TREES ,.....,.. 114-123 

Improving  soil  conditions — the  need  of  humus  in  the  soil 
— fertilizers  for  trees — cultivation — pruning  shade  trees — 
how  to  cut  off  a  limb — time  to  prune — pruning  tools — 
taking  care  of  the  wounds. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

COMMON  INJURIES  TO  SHADE  TREES 124-145 

Sources  of  injury — injuries  caused  by  gas  and  smoke — 
injuries  from  overhead  wires — injuries  from  regrading 
streets — injuries  from  improper  pruning — injuries  from 
horse  bites  and  careless  driving — injuries  from  wind  and 
ice — injuries  from  improper  soil  conditions — renovation 
of  trees — the  natural  age  limit — tree  surgery — dehorning 
trees — taking  care  of  recent  injuries — filling  cavities — 
bolting  and  chaining. 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  CONTROL  OF  PARASITES  146-173 

Fungus  troubles — insect  troubles — how  insects  injure  trees 
— methods  of  combating  insects — spraying  for  insects — 
hand-picking  of  insects — banding  and  trapping — pre- 
ventive measures — natural  enemies  of  insects — some  com- 
mon shade  tree  insects — leaf-eating  insects — bag  worm^ 
brown-tail  moth,  canker  worm,  elm-leaf  beetle,  gypsy 
moth,  slugs,  spiney  elm  caterpillar,  tent  caterpillar  and 
fall  webworm,  tussock  moth — sucking-insects — aphis  or 
plant  louse,  spruce  gall  louse — scale  insects — borers. 

CHAPTER  X 

INSECTICIDES,  FUNGICIDES  AND  SPRAYING  . . .  174-182 
Insecticides — stomach      poisons — contact     insecticides — 
fungicides — spraying — spraying  machinery. 


PART  II.,  IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES 

EXPLANATION   OF  TERMS    185 

ANALYTICAL  KEY 192 

METHOD  OF  USE^  KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES. 

DESCEIPTION  OF  SPECIES 210 

The  Pines  (p.  210-221)— the  Larch  (p.  222)— the 
Spruces  (p.  224-233)— the  Douglas  Fir  (p.  234)— the 
Balsam  Fir  (p.  236)— the  Hemlock  (p.  238)— the  Coast 
White  Cedar  (p.  240)— the  Arbor  Vitae  (p.  242)— the 
Junipers  and  Red  Cedar  (p.  244-247) — the  Ginkgo 
(p.  248)— the  Willows  (p.  250)— the  Poplars  (p.  252- 
263)— the  AYalnuts  and  Hickories  (p.  264-275)— the 
Hornbeams  (p.  276-279)— the  Birches  (p.  280-291)— the 
Alders  (p.  292)— the  Beech  (p.  294)— the  Chestnut 
(p.  296)— the  Oaks  (p.  298-321)— the  Elms  (p.  322- 
329)— the  Hackberry  (p.  330)— the  Mulberries  (p.  332- 
335)— the  Magnolias  (p.  336-339)— the  Tulip  Tree 
(p.  340)— the  Sassafras  (p.  342)— the  Witch  Hazel 
(p.  344) — the  Sweet  Gum  (p.  346) — the  Sycamore 
(p.  348)— the  Pear  (p.  350)— the  Apple  (p.  352)— the 
Mountain  Ash  (p.  354) — the  Quince  (p.  356) — the 
Shadbush  (p.  358)— the  Hawthorns  (p.  360)— the  Cher- 
ries (p.  362-371)— the  Plums  (p.  372-377)— the  Peach 
(p.  378)— the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  (p.  380)— the 
Honey  Locust  (p.  382)— the  Redbud  (p.  384)— the  Yel- 
low Wood  (p.  386)— the  Locusts  (p.  388)— the  Ailanthus 
(p.  390)— the  Sumachs  (p.  392-395)— the  Holly  (p.  396) 
—the  Maples  (p.  398-413)— the  Horse-chestnut  (p.  414) 
— the  Linden  (p.  416) — the  Dogwoods  (p.  418) — ^the 
the  Tupelo  (p.  420)— the  Ashes  (p.  422-427)— the 
Catalpas  (p.  428). 

GLOSSARY 430 

INDEX 435 


PEEFACE 

The  title,  Trees  in  Winter,  might  seem  to  one  unacquainted  with 
the  subject  to  confine  the  usefulness  of  this  book  to  the  months  De- 
cember, January  and  February.  Winter,  as  we  shall  use  the  term, 
is  not  defined  by  the  human  calendar.  It  is  that  period  when  the 
tree  is  in  its  resting  condition,  and  may  be  considered  to  extend 
from  the  shedding  of  the  leaves  in  the  fall  to  the  bursting  of  buds 
in  the  spring.  The  period  is  different  for  different  trees  and  in  dif- 
ferent localities,  but  in  the  northeastern  United  States  it  may  be- 
gin as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  September,  with  such  forms  as 
the  Butternut,  and  may  extend  even  into  the  middle  of  May  with 
the  Catalpa.  The  title  would  further  emphasize  the  general  rule 
brought  out  in  Part  I  that  the  buying,  planting,  and  care  of  trees 
should  take  place  only  in  their  dormant  condition.  Such  excep- 
tional treatment  as  spraying  for  leaf  diseases  will  be  discussed 
for  the  sake  of  completeness  but  it  still  remains  true  that  a  tree 
generally  would  better  be  left  untouched  during  its  growing  season. 
The  material  in  Part  II,  first  appeared  in  pamphlet  form  as  a  bul- 
letin of  the  Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  The  demand 
for  the  bulletin,  especially  for  use  in  the  schools,  has  proven  so 
great  throughout  the  state  that  it  seems  desirable  to  publish  the 
information  in  book  form  and  thus  render  it  more  widely  avail- 
able than  could  be  the  case  in  a  state  publication  of  necessarily  lim- 
ited distribution. 

Part  I,  on  the  planting  and  care  of  trees,  has  been  added  in  car- 
rying out  the  suggestion  of  the  publishers  and  many  of  our  corre- 
spondents who  have  thought  that  such  an  introductory  part  would 
broaden  the  usefulness  of  the  book,  especially  among  those  who 
possess  trees  of  their  own.  The  section  is  written  primarily  for 
the  individual  and  his  home  grounds  rather  than  for  a  municipal 
street  planting  commission.  The  viewpoint,  therefore,  will  be 
more  that  of  the  country  and  of  the  home  than  that  of  the  city. 
Xo  especial  originality  is  claimed  for  the  material  in  this  part,  a 
considerable  number  of  publications  including  government  bulle- 
tins have  been  consulted  in  its  preparation.  If  the  arrangement 
of  the  subject  matter  renders  needed  information  easily  obtain- 
able, it  will  have  served  its  purpose. 

Library 
N.  C,  State  Collee:© 


8  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Part  II  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  tlie  indentification  of  our  com- 
mon trees  in  winter.  Although  lumbering  and  the  commercial 
handling  of  trees  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  leafless  season  and  their 
identification  at  this  period  consequently  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance, still  there  has  been  up  to  the  present  time  little  assistance  ac- 
cessible in  this  country  to  one  who  has  wished  to  be  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  trees  in  their  interesting  winter  condition. 

The  text  with  keys  in  Part  II,  is  an  outgrowth  of  outlines  that 
one  of  the  authors  has  developed  and  used  with  various  modifica- 
tions for  the  last  five  years  in  his  college  classes  in  Botany  and 
Forestiy.  The  photographic  illustrations  are  all  originals,  most 
of  them  by  the  other  author.  In  Part  II,  one  of  us  is  responsible 
for  the  text  and  for  the  selection  of  the  material  photographed,  and 
the  other  for  the  majority  of  the  photographs,  while  in  Part  I,  one 
of  us  has  written  the  introductory  chapter  on  the  study  of  trees  and 
the  chapter  on  the  structure,  life  and  growth  of  a  tree,  and  the 
other  the  subsequent  chapters.  We  have,  however,  frequently  con- 
sulted throughout  in  the  preparation  of  the  book. 

The  order  of  arrangement  of  the  species  in  the  text  and  the 
scientific  names  follow  the  usage  of  the  seventh  edition  of  Gray's 
Manual,  and  the  latter  are  in  accord  with  the  rules  laid  down  in 
the  Vienna  Congress.  The  figures  and  descriptions  given  are  of 
trees  for  the  most  part  growing  wild  in  the  northeastern  portion  of 
North  America,  including  as  its  center  New  England,  and  the 
neighboring  regions.  A  few  rarer  species  which  occur  only  very 
locally  or  in  isolated  instances  within  this  region  have  been  omitted 
from  illustration.  In  their  places,  however,  some  of  the  more 
frequently  cultivated  trees  have  been  included  because  of  their 
value  for  forestry  purposes  or  because  of  their  familiarity  in  orna- 
mental plantings.  The  varieties  of  cultivated  forms  are  so  num- 
erous that  it  is  obviously  possible  to  take  account  of  only  the  most 
common  types.  Their  inclusion,  it  is  believed,  will  add  to  the  value 
of  the  publication  especially  for  its  use  in  cities.  The  keys  can  be 
absolutely  relied  upon  only  for  the  species  just  mentioned  from  New 
England  and  the  neighboring  regions.  New  England,  including 
as  it  does  the  meeting  ground  between  the  northern  and  southern 
floras,  is  extremely  rich  in  the  species  of  trees  represented.  Part 
II,  therefore,  especially  in  its  descriptive     text  and  illustrations 


PLANTIXG  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  VI 

should  prove  of    service  outside  of    the  geographically  restricted 
region  described. 

The  photographs  of  the  twigs  and  of  the  fruit  of  the  deciduous 
trees  are  very  nearly  natural  size.  They  have  been  slightly  reduced 
in  production  but  all  of  them  to  same  scale,  except  the  fruits 
of  the  Catalpa,  the  Chestnut  and  the  Honey  Locust  as  indicated 
under  these  species.  Line  drawings  or  touched-up  photographs 
would  no  doubt  show  important  details  more  clearly  by  emphasiz- 
ing certain  of  the  minute  markings.  Since,  however,  these  details 
are  often  obscure,  and  moreover  receive  full  recognition  in  the  ac- 
companying text,  it  has  been  thought  that  a  truer  idea  of  the  twigs 
would  be  gained  if  they  were  left  as  they  appeared  in  the  photo- 
graphs. Accordingly,  they  have  not  been  "doctored"  in  prepara- 
tion or  reproduction.  The  leafy  twigs  of  the  cone-bearing  ever- 
greens have  been  more  or  less  reduced  as  indicated  under  the  de- 
scriptions of  the  genera  in  the  key.  All  the  twigs  of  a  single  gen- 
us, however,  are  on  the  same  scale. 

Part  II  follows  the  same  general  plan  as  in  the  bulletin.  Another 
winter's  study  has  made  possible  a  number  of  additions,  especially 
among  the  habit  characters  and  some  minor  corrections  have  been 
made  in  the  text.  New  habit  photographs  are  given  of  the  Eed 
Mulberry,  the  Sassafras,  the  Swamp  White  Oak  and  the  Chinqua- 
pin Oak  and  bark  photographs  of  the  Carolina  Poplar  and  the 
Chinquapin  Oak.  Last  winter's  classes  in  Botany  and  Forestry 
made  use  of  galley  proofs  of  the  keys  and  descriptive  text,  and  the 
present  year's  classes  have  used  the  finished  bulletin.  The  keys 
especially  have  in  consequence  been  considerably  modified  since 
their  first  arrangement.  Many  of  the  explanatory  phrases  which 
may  appear  to  be  unnecessary  have  been  inserted  at  the  demand 
of  the  students.  Where  possible  the  most  obvious  characters  have 
been  employed  and  though  the  keys  in  consequence  have  become 
somewhat  more  cumbersome  it  is  hoped  they  will  prove  more 
usable.  Errors  and  omissions  have  no  doubt  crept  in  despite  the 
efforts  to  avoid  them.  We  would  be  grateful  for  any  additions  or 
corrections  that  may  be  suggested  in  the  descriptions  or  keys  in 
view  of  a  possible  further  revision  of  the  text 

Acnowledgements  are  due  to  the  Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  for  the  use  of  the  half  tone  plates  of  figures  34,  37,  38,  45, 
48,  49,  and  50  in  Part  I,  and  for  most  of  those  in  Part  II;  to 


10  TREES  IN-  WINTER 

the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  use  of 
illustiations  represented  by  figures  30,  44,  46,  47,  57,  75,  76,  77, 
78,-  79,  80,  81,  82,  83,  84,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93  and 
95;  to  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  for  the  use  of  figures 
41,  42,  51,  52,  53,  55,  62,  68  and  69;  to  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  the  use  of  figures  71,  72,  73,  74  and  98;  to 
Messrs.  Isaac  Hicks  and  Son  for  the  use  of  figures  39  and  40 ;  to 
the  Newark  Shade  Tree  Commission  for  the  use  of  figure  54;  to 
the  Frost  Bartlett  Company  for  the  use  of  figures  61,  63,  70,  and 
96;  to  Mr.  A.  D.  Taylor  for  the  use  of  figure  23;  to  Mr.  George 

A.  Cromie    for   the    drawing   represented   by    figure    36;    to    P. 

B.  Mann  for  taking  one  of  the  habit  photographs  of  the  Sassafras 
on  page  342 ;  to  Mr.  J.  M.  Johnson  for  taking  the  habit  photograph 
of  the  Eed  Mulberry  on  page  332,  to  Mr.  C.  C.  Laney  for  the  habit 
and  bark  photographs  of  the  Chinquapin  Oak  on  page  306;  to  Mr. 
A.  F.  Schulze  for  compiling  the  index;  to  many  other  people  for 
assistance  in  various  ways;  and  especially  to  the  students  whose 
interest  in  trees  in  winter  first  suggested  this  publication  and 
whose  cooperation  in  its  production  has  helped  to  give  it  its 
finished  form. 

Albert  Francis  Blakeslee. 
Chester  Deacon  Jarvis. 
Storrs,  Conn.,  March  1912. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OP  TREES  11 

INTRODUCTION. 
THE  STUDY  OF  TREES. 

It  is  frequently  the  practice  in  an  introductor}^  chapter  to  show 
the  importance  of  the  subject  to  be  discussed  and  to  attempt  to 
prove  that  it,  of  all  subjects  for  study,  is  most  worthy  of  the 
.•eader's  consideration.  Many  words  could  thus  be  used  in  de- 
scribing the  misfortune  to  civilization,  literature  and  art  had  our 
world  been  devoid  of  trees  and  the  product  of  trees.  The  for- 
ester and  the  lumberman  bear  testimony  to  the  utilitarian  value 
of  trees  and  the  landscape  architect  to  their  use  in  making  our  sur- 
roundings more  beautiful.  It  is  not  necessary,  therefore,  to  jus- 
tify the  interest  in  our  subject. 

Although  the  botanical  specialist  and  the  student  of  tree  dis- 
eases, may,  it  is  hoped,  find  in  the  present  volume  added  means  of 
identifying  their  tree  specimens,  the  book  is  not  intended  pri- 
marily for  the  indoor  laboratory.  It  is  meant  to  serve  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  and  appreciation  of  one  phase  of  outdoor  life. 
The  present  chapter  will  suggest  some  of  the  ways  in  which  the 
study  of  trees  may  be  carried  on. 

Tree  Identification  —  In  the  early  stages  of  knowledge  come 
names.  If  one  objects  that  so  large  a  part  of  the  book  is 
given  over  to  the  means  of  distinguishing  one  tree  from  another — 
in  other  words  to  learning  their  names — it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  natural  approach  toward  knowing  a  person  is  learning 
his  name.  It  is  not  otherwise  with  trees.  We  who  are  teachers 
know  the  difficulties  in  learning  the  names  in  a  new  class  of  stu- 
dents. Some  of  us  may  have  devised  temporary  expedients  as 
jotting  down  in  our  roll  book  such  distingiiishing  facial  character- 
istics of  the  students  as  the  color  of  the  eyes  or  of  the  hair.  No 
doubt,  if  it  were  worth  while,  a  satisfactory  key  to  the  identification 
of  a  class  of  students  could  be  worked  out  by  the  use  of  such 
characters.  We  have  never  tried  it  with  our  students  because  we 
have  soon  come  to  know  them  less  by  such  detailed  marks  of  dis- 
tinction than  by  the  whole  face  and  Ave  finally  learn  to  recognize 
them  even  at  a  distance  by  some  indefinable  peculiarity  of  form  or 
habit  of  gait. 

The  more  minute  characters  of  the  twig  used  in  the  keys  and 
descriptive  text  are  to  be  used  as  we  use  the  color  of  the  hair  and 

Library 
JNT.  C,  State  CollefrA 


1?  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

e3^es  in  learning  our  new  students.  The  ideal  toward  which  iden- 
tificational  studies  should  tend  is  the  ability  to  recognize  a  tree 
at  a  distance.  Unfortunately  the  general  appearance  or  ^Tiabit'^ 
of  a  tree  as  well  as  the  character  of  its  bark  is  difficult  of  precise 
descri23tion^  but  if  the  markings  on  the  twigs  are  considered  chiefly 
as  first  aids  to  the  uninitiated^  progress  toward  this  ideal  will  be 
more  surely  made. 

Winter  is  the  best  time  in  which  to  acquire  this  ability  to  recog- 
nize trees  at  a  distance.  They  are  individually  more  conspicuous 
at  this  season.  Try  watching  them  from  a  car  window  in  their 
winter  aspect  and  you  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  many  can  be 
thus  recognized  after  a  little  practice.  A  tree  in  winter  'is  far  from 
being  the  characterless  object  many  believe.  Freed  from  its  cov- 
ering of  leaves,  the  skeleton  of  the  tree  is  revealed  and  with  the 
method  of  branching  thus  clearly  discernible,  the  species  may  gen- 
erally be  more  readily  identified  at  a  distance  than  when  in  its 
summer  garb.  There  are  many  forms,  moreover,  that  are  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  by  summer  features  alone,  but  which  in  winter 
have  twig,  bud,  or  other  characters  which  make  their  separation 
comparatively  easy. 

We  have  suggested  as  the  goal  of  identificational  study  the 
power  to  recognize  trees  by  the  more  general  features  of  "habit" 
and  bark.  The  present  volume  can  be  considered  only  as  an  intro- 
duction toward  this  study.  Extreme  care  has  been  taken  in  the 
attempt  to  obtain  photographs  that  will  represent  the  most  typ- 
ical appearance  of  these  features.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  no  two  trees  are  absolutely  alike  l)ut  that  they  vary 
more  or  less  as  shown  on  page  184:  in  response  to  difference  in  ex- 
ternal conditions  as,  for  example,  age,  soil,  light  (figs.  18  and  19  p. 
39),  and  locality  as  well  as  to  innate  differences  in  the  individual 
trees  themselves.  Considerations  of  space  forbid  usually  the  illus- 
tration of  more  than  a  single  type  and  this  in  general,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  descriptive  text,  will  suffice.  It  is  hoped,  however, 
that  the  present  volume  will  stimulate  similar  illustrative  work  on 
other  more  limited  areas  or  on  more  limited  groups  where  the  re- 
strictions of  space  for  illustrations  need  not  be  so  keenly  felt. 

When  once  we  have  begun  to  acquire  a  resonable  familiarity  with 
trees,  numerous  ways  in  which  the  study  may  be  advanced  will  oc- 
cur to  the  reader.     The  possibilities  in  Forestry  and  Landscape 


PLANTING  AND  CAEE  OF  TREES  13 

Architecture  need  not  be  discussed,  although  some  knowledge  of 
these  professional  subjects  will  be  of  special  interest  to  anyone 
who  owns  a  woodlot  or  landed  home,  and  will  be  of  general  inter- 
est to  all  citizens  to  whom  national  conservation  of  our  resources 
in  natural  beauty  as  well  as  in  natural  wealth  is  a  matter  of  con- 
cern. 

Tree  Study  in  Relation  to  Poeti-y  and  Art  —  Trees  to  most 
people  are  of  interest  aside  from  their  scientific  or  utilitarian 
value.  It  is  surprising  to  many  to  learn  that  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  large  mimber  of  books  on  trees  have  been  written 
primarily  from  the  botanical  or  the  utilitarian  point  of  view.  The 
marjority  view  trees  as  elements  in  the  world  of  beauty  out  of  doors. 
The  highest  expression  of  an  appeciation  of  this  beauty  appears  in 
the  form  of  poetry  or  art.  It  will  accordingly  be  well  to  consider 
trees  for  a  moment  from  this  viewpoint  before  further  discussing 
their  study. 

Poetry  is  not  an  unintelligible  ebullition  of  enthusiasm  for  the 
good,  the  true,  the  beautiful.  Poetry  demands  S3rmpathy.  Sym- 
pathy entails  familiarity,  knowledge;  and  knowledge  is  power  in 
poetry  as  in  business.  It  is  no  accident  that  before  a  winter  book 
on  trees  was  ever  thought  of  and  the  color  of  the  bud  used  to  dis- 
tinguish the  European  Ash  from  some  of  its  American  relatives, 
Tennyson  was  able  to  characterize  a  lock  of  hair  as  "black  as  ash 
buds  in  the  front  of  March,"  and  was  able  to  see  "a  thousand  em- 
eralds burst  from  the  ruby-budded  lime."  Few  can  have  a  pro- 
ductive appreciation  for  poetry,  but  if  we  learn  to  see  clearly  and 
with  sympathy  the  natural  beauty  around  us  we  have  learned  the 
foundations  upon  which  poetry  is  based. 

Trees  are  the  most  conspicuous  living  elements  in  the  land- 
scape, especially  in  winter,  and  as  such  must  appeal  strongly  to 
the  student  of  outdoor  life.  To  the  landscape  artist  they  are 
more  than  canvas  or  pigments,  for  they  are  themselves  the  pic- 
l!ure  which  on  canvas  with  his  pigments  he  tries  to  reproduce.  If 
we  study  art  we  are  led  to  visit  the  museums  of  art.  We  learn 
how  in  difl'erent  times  and  in  different  countries  men  have  seen  and 
interpreted  beauty.  Some,  for  example,  find  beauty  in  the  single 
form,  others  in  groups.  The  result  is  as  varied  as  the  personality 
of  the  artists.  Although  an  advance  can  be  discerned  in  the 
method  of  expression  and,  by  the  process  of  evolution,  such  guid- 


14  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

ing  principles  as  simplicity  and  unity  have  become  generally  ac- 
cepted, still  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  art  has  its  styles  as  well  as 
dress.  Landscape  architecture  has  undergone  a  development  and 
is  subject  to  changes  like  other  forms  of  art. 

The  landscape  is  a  gallery  of  art  always  open.  The  pictures  are 
many,  varied,  and  ever  changing.  Trees  are  the  principal  figures. 
They  are  interesting  for  their  individual  beauty  and  for  their  ef- 
fect in  harmonious  groups.  It  is  for  us  to  find  these  pictures,  to 
discover  what  in  form  or  composition  or  situation  makes  them 
interesting.  The  student  of  art  does  the  same  for  the  gallery 
masterpieces  and  opens  his  eyes  to  new  worlds  of  beauty.  We  also 
may  have  our  eyes  opened,  for  the  landscape  is  always  with  us. 

Profitable  indeed  in  this  connection  will  be  a  study  of  the  land- 
scape artists.  In  what  way  do  trees  appeal  to  them  ?  What  part  do 
trees  play  in  their  compositions?  Is  it  the  individual  tree  or 
trees  in  groups  that  interest  them  most?  Is  it  in  the  foreground, 
the  background  or  the  middle  distance  that  we  find  them  most 
frequently  represented?  What  species  are  preferred?  Compare 
Euysdael,  Corot,  Constable  and  other  landscape  artists.  Are  they 
alike  in  their  preference? 

Claude  Monet  has  given  us  a  wonderful  series  of  pictures  of  the 
Thames  Bridge  in  varying  moods.  We  may  find  for  ourselves  as 
interesting  a  series  of  even  a  single  tree  (figs.  1  to  11).  Along  a 
sloping  roadside  by  a  farm  house  stands  a  Sugar  Maple  of  some 
eighty  winters.  Looked  at  from  east  or  west  the  tree  is  narrow — 
perhaps  from  crowding  in  its  youth  by  neighbors  now  no  longer 
present.  From  north  or  south  the  crown  shows  the  broad,  egg- 
shaped  outline  more  typical  of  the  species.  On  the  eastern  side  are 
several  ragged  limbs  broken  some  four  or  five  years  since  by  an  ice 
storm  that  blew  in  a  too  heavy  load  of  sleet  from  the  east.  On  the 
western  side  the  tree  seems  perfect.  From  above  on  the  north  its 
outlines  are  partially  blocked  by  buildings  and  obscured  by  the 
background  of  the  fields  below.  From  the  south  it  seems  to  raise 
its  head  and  shows  the  limbs  clear-cut  above  the  sky  line.  From  a 
distance  it  is  a  conspicuous  landmark  and  always  interesting .  We 
can  picture  the  tree  from  different  viewpoints.  AYe  can  see  it  in 
different  lights  and  shadows.  We  can  follow  the  changes  in  the 
background  of  the  picture — the  bare  ground,  the  snow,  the  green 
fields;  the  mists,  the  rain,  the  full  sunlight,  the  long  shadows  and 

Fig.   1.  (Upper    right    hand    figure)    the    tree    viewed    from    the    south. 

Fig.   2.  (Middle    right    hand    figure)    the    tree    viewed    from    the    west. 

Fig.   3.  (Lower   right   hand    figure)    the   tree    viewed    from    the    east. 

Fig.   4.  (Upper  left  hand   figure)    the  tree  from  the  north. 

Fig.   5.  (Middle  left  hand  figure)   the  tree  in  an  ice  storm. 

Fig.   6.  (Lower  left  hand  figure)   the  tree  in  summer  foliage. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


15 


,v.y?Ly/.,,^.^..V.¥    •'     •  W^^^ 

.Tir 

.  .K. . 

« 

& 

Figures  1-6.     A  Sugar  Maple.     See  footnote  page  14. 


16 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


THE  SAME  MAPLE  SEEN  FROM  A  DISTANCE 
Fig-.   7.      (Upper  figure)    across  the  meadow. 
Fig.   8.      (Middle    figure)    beyond   the   cornfield. 
Fig.   9.     (Lower   figure)    up   the   road. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


17 


Fig.  10.     The  Maple  framed  in  by  Elms. 


Fig-.  11.     The  Maple  in  sunlight   and  shadow. 


the  bright  tints  at  sunset  or  at  dawn.  ^Ye  can  watch  the  changes 
in  the  tree  itself,  can  note  in  winter  its  type  of  branching  and  the 
fine  penciling  of  its  twigs  against  the  sky,  in  spring  the  opening 
of  its  buds  and  the  rapid  growth  of  flower  and  leaf,  in  summer  the 
full  foliage,  in  autumn  the  rich  leaf  coloring  and  the  fall  of  leaf 
and  fruit. 

A  swing  hangs  from  a  broad  spreading  lower  limb.  Children 
play  about  it.  Eobins  have  built  their  nests  in  its  branches  and 
here  they  rear  their  young.  Throughout  the  long,  hot  summer 
days  its  dense  covering  of  leaves  gives  a  grateful  shade  below.     To 


13  TREES  IN  WINTER 

the  sleepy  child  the  moonlight  casts  weird  fairy  shadows  of  the 
limbs  upon  the  bedroom  floor  and  the  soft  rustle  of  its  leaves  lulls 
him  to  sleep.  Is  there  great  wonder  then  that  in  after  years 
this  same  child  holds  the  old  family  tree  dear — an  inseparable  part 
of  his  youth.  The  tree  has  helped  to  make  the  house  a  home. 
We  have  been  viewing  a  tree  in  its  human  relations.  Such  a  view 
may  not  be  botany,  but  whoever  has  had  a  home  with  a  tree,  knows 
that  it  is  life. 

Tree  Photo grapliy  —  It  is  fortunate  for  us  who  are  not  painters 
that  the  photographic  camera  offers  a  means  of  recording  the 
pictures  as  we  find  them.  The  ground  glass  or  the  "finder"  on  the 
camera  or  even  an  empty  frame  held  at  varying  distances  from  the 
eye  will  separate  for  us  the  view  from  its  surroundings.  Only 
experience  however,  will  show  what  results  to  expect  in  the  de- 
veloped picture.  In  general  better  effects  will  be  obtained  from 
near  views  or  from  distant  views  with  prominent  features  in  the 
foreground. 

The  condition  and  position  of  the  sunlight  are  matters  of  prime 
importance  in  the  photographing  of  trees.  Full  light  is  desir- 
able and  the  sun  should  be  somewhat  behind  and  considerably  to 
one  side  of  the  camera.  If  light  comes  from  behind  the  tree  a 
mere  silhouette  of  the  branching  is  obtained,  while  if  the  light 
is  directly  back  of  the  camera  the  trunk  and  crowTi  appear  flat  from 
lack  of  contrast.  When  one  side  of  the  trunk,  as  viewed  from 
the  camera,  appears  dark  and  the  other  side  in  direct  sunlight,  all 
the  branches  of  the  tree  in  the  finished  picture,  as  well  as  the  trunk, 
will  appear  solid.  The  position  of  the  light  is  of  even  more  im- 
portance in  photographing  the  bark.  Depressions  and  ridges 
seem  to  disappear  when  the  light  shines  directly  against  them 
and  a  somewhat  lateral  illumination  is  therefore  necessary  to  bring 
out  the  details  of  the  bark  sculpturing. 

The  position  of  the  camera  must  also  be  considered.  A  tree 
viewed  from  below  appears  different  from  what  it  would  if  viewed 
on  the  level  and  from  a  distance.  Habit  views  are  often  taken 
too  near  the  trees.  Moreover,  the  camera  is  generally  placed  be- 
low the  usual  eye  level  and  this  position  tends  to  give  the  tree 
an  unnatural  appearance.  It  is  generally  useless  to  attempt  to 
show  much  detail  in  the  method  of  branching  of  an  individual 
tree  if  the  crown  cannot  be  seen  clear  above  the  sky  line.     A  cover- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  19 

ing  of  snow,  however,  may  offer  as  good  a  background  as  the  sky 
and  allow  a  tree  to  be  photographed  against  a  hillside  where  other- 
wise a  satisfactory  photograph  would  not  be  possible  (p.  357).  A 
white  sheet  held  behind  the  trunk  may  afford  an  artificial  back- 
ground for  a  bark  photograph.  Generally  this  is  not 
necessary  since  bark  photograi^hs  are  taken  at  close  range 
and  the  surrounding  objects  are  mostly  out  of  focus. 
If  need  be,  the  background  can  be  painted  out  on  the 
negative.  For  habit  pictures  in  sunlight  we  have  found  a  No. 
16  stop  and  1/25 — 1/20  second  exposure  to  give  good  results  when 
the  wind  will  allow  so  long  an  exposure.  For  bark  pictures  the 
smallest  stop  and  a  proportionately  longer  exposure,  say  1/2  to  1 
second,  will  give  the  greater  detail  desired  in  such  pictures. 

To  one  interested  in  botany  as  an  avocation,  trees  furnish  an 
especially  available  subject  for  outdoor  study.  They  are  acces- 
sible in  city  or  in  country,  in  winter  or  in  summer.  Their  size 
renders  them  conspicuous.  They  can  accordingly  be  studied  from 
a  carriage,  an  automobile,  or  a  rapidly  moving  train,  and  in  this 
way  much  learned  that  would  be  impossible  to  discover  if  the  study 
were  confined  to  a  single  locality  or  if  the  student  were  dealing 
with  smaller  forms. 

Tree  Ecology  —  Ecology,  the  study  of  plants  in  relation  to 
their  environment,  finds  in  trees  a  most  convenient  group  in 
which  to  carry  on  investigations.  The  subject  is  comparatively 
new  and  many  problems  are  as  yet  unsolved.  After  some  familiarity 
has  been  gained  with  the  trees  that  grow  in  one's  own  locality,  it 
will  be  possible  to  discover  something  about  their  distribution.  A 
list  of  the  local  tree  flora  of  one's  state,  county  or  town  or  even  of 
a  more  restricted  area  has  a  distinct  value  if  carefully  made,  but  it 
is  far  from  being  the  end  of  tree  study.  What  trees  are  usually 
found  growing  together  and  what  are  the  causes  that  bring  them 
to  be  thus  associated?  Is  there  a  swamp  "association,"  a  dry  hill- 
side association  or  other  associations  of  more  or  less  well  marked 
character?  What  is  the  influence  exerted  upon  the  various  species 
by  differences  in  character  of  the  soil  and  its  chemical  composition 
— the  presence  or  absence  of  lime  for  example — the  amount  of 
available  moisture,  the  altitude,  the  exposure  to  the  sun  and  wind 
on  different  sides  of  a  hill  or  mountain,  the  climate  and  other  such 


20  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

factors  and  how  do  they  become  effective?  What  influence  do  they 
have  upon  the  growth  .of  the  individual  tree? 

If  a  wood&  is  cut  do^A^l  or  burned  over  or  if  a  pasture  is  neg- 
lected^ what  are  the  first  trees  most  likely  to  grow  up?  How  have 
they  come  there?  Are  these  the  trees  that  will  prevail  after  fifty  or 
one  hundred  years?  What  is  the  character  of  the  '^climax  forests" 
in  the  region  investigated?  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United 
States  there  is  no  lack  of  deserted  pastures  in  all  stages  of  return 
to  the  forest  condition  and  old,  gnarled  apple  trees  even,  the  rem- 
nant of  some  forgotten  orchard,  may  be  foimd  still  living  in  the 
midst  of  the  woods  and  completely  surrounded  by  forest  trees. 
These  various  stages  of  development  may  be  pieced  together  and 
may  enable  us  to  make  out  the  order  of  "forest  succession." 

The  climate  of  a  given  locality  is  the  resultant  of  such  diverse 
factors  as  latitude,  altitude,  rainfall  and  exposure  to  wind  and 
sun.  It  is  expressed  by  the  character  of  the  vegetation.  The  length 
of  the  growing  season,  from  the  gradual  awakening  of  growth  in 
the  spring  till  its  cessation  in  the  fall,  is  of  prime  importance  to 
agriculture.  Are  the  springs  and  falls  early  or  late  in  a  given  lo- 
cality? The  progress  of  the  seasons  can  best  l)e  measured  in  terms 
of  tree  activities,  such  as  the  appearance  of  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit  and  the  falling  of  the  leaves  in  different 
species.  Observations  of  these  points  in  the  yearly  history  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  trees  is  of  so  much  importance  in  measuring  gen- 
eral and  local  climate,  that  the  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C, 
is  attempting  to  obtain  records  on  this  subject  from  as  many  dif- 
ferent places  as  possible.  They  will  gladly  send  record  blanks  to 
anyone  willing  to  co-operate  with  them  in  making  observations. 
The  time  of  opening  of  the  bud,  of  flowering  and  of  leaf  fall  if  ac- 
curately recorded,  especially  for  a  series  of  years,  although  for 
only  a  single  species,  will  be  information  of  value. 

The  life  of  the  individual  tree  will  well  repay  our  study.  What 
are  the  problems  that  it  must  solve  in  order  to  lead  a  successful  ex- 
istence, and  how  are  these  problems  solved  by  different  kinds  of 
trees?  These  questions  are  discussed  in  Chapter  II.  The  effect  of 
external  conditions  upon  the  habit  is  touched  upon  in  Part  II. 

Tree  Measurement  —  The  information  regarding  the  dimensions 
of  a  tree  are  of  minor  importance  for  purposes  of  identification,  but 
are  of  considerable  value  to  the  woodsman.     The  diameter  of  the 


PLxVNTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  21 

trunk  may  be  best  measured  directly  by  calipers  at  breast  height  from 
the  ground  or  indirectly  obtained  by  dividing  the  circumference  by 
3  (more  accurately  by  ir  =3.1416).  A  number  of  rough  methods 
of  estimating  height  are  given  in  books  on  forestry.  For  example, 
from  a  distance  equal  to  several  times  the  length  of  the  tree,  the 
height  of  a  10  ft.  pole  beside  the  trunk  or  a  mark  on  the  trunk 
of  known  height  may  be  compared  with  the  height  of  the  whc 
tree. 

The  height  to  which  one  can  reach  may  be  detennined  by  trial 
and  this  kept  in  mind  as  a  unit  of  measure.  A  piece  of  paper  is 
fastened  to  the  trunk  at  this  height  from  the  ground.  From  a 
distance,  with  arm  fully  extended,  we  measure  oif  w4th  the  finger 
on  a  lead  pencil  the  height  of  the  paper  from  the  ground  which 
we  will  imagine  to  be  7  feet.  Using  this  distance  on  the  pencil 
as  a  scale,  we  continue  sighting  upward  and  find  that  the  top  of 
the  tree  is  8^  units,  let  us  say,  from  its  base.  Each  unit  being 
7  feet  the  total  height  is,  therefore,  approximately  59^^  feet.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  if  the  distance  from  which  the  sights  are 
made  is  at  least  three  or  four  times  the  height  of  the  tree  and  the 
arm  is  kept  fully  extended  during  the  process  of  sighting,  the  re- 
sults show  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  shadow  of  the  tree  may  be  compared  w^ith  the  shadow  of  an 
erect  pole  of  known  height  and  the  height  of  the  tree  computed  by 
the  rule  of  three.  A  right  angle  triangle  constructed  of  wood  or 
cardboard  with  two  sides  equal  may  be  used  as  a  measure.  One 
of  the  equal  sides  is  kept  vertical  by  an  attached  plumb  line  and 
sights  are  made  along  the  long  edge  from  different  distances  till 
the  top  of  the  tree  is  just  seen  above  the  line  of  sight.  The  dis- 
tance paced  to  the  tree  gives  the  height  of  its  top  above  the  eye. 
Instead  of  using  a  triangle  to  find  the  point  from  which  to  pace  to 
the  tree,  German  foresters  are  said  to  sometimes  use  a  cruder 
method  which  consists  in  bending  over  with  the  back  to  the  tree 
and  finding  the  distance  where  the  top  is  just  visible  when  viewed 
with  the  head  between  the  knees.  This  method,  however,  has 
natural  limitations.  The  last  three  methods  are  conditional  upon 
the  tree  standing  upon  approximately  level  ground. 

Instruments  for  more  accurate  measurement  are  on  the  market 
under  the  name  of  hypsometers.  A  home-made  instrument  may 
readily  be  constructed  which  has  been  found  to  compare  favor- 


22 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


ably  in  accuracy  with  the  expensive  Faustmann  hypsometer  of 
which  it  is  a  modification.  A  rectangular  board  about  a  foot  in 
length  is  ruled  in  squares  or  more  conveniently  has  squared  co- 


Fig*.  12.     Home-made  Height  Measurer. 


ordinate  paper  pasted  on  one  side  (fig,  12).  Care  should  be 
observed  that  the  top  of  the  board  AF  is  straight  and  accurately 
parallel  to  the  lines  running  lengthwise  of  the  paper.  The  line 
MC  is  numbered  from  M  in  any  convenient  unit,  say  up  to  100, 
and  using  the  same  unit,  the  line  HK  is  numbered  in  both  direc- 
tions beginning  at  C.  A  thread  with  a  weight  is  attached  at  M 
and*  hangs  free  from  the  zero  point  at  the  top  of  MC.  In  use  a 
convenient  distance,  say  100  ft.  from  the  tree,  is  first  measured  off 
as  a  base  line,  and  upon  this  measurement  largely  depends 
the  accuracy  of  the  height  estimation.     At  the  100  ft.  mark  the 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


23 


top  of  the  tree  is  sighted  along  the  straight  edge  AF  which  may 
more  conveniently  be  fitted  with  some  simple  form  of  sights.  At 
the  point  B,  where  the  plumb  line  crosses  the  line  CK  the  height 
of  the  tree  above  the  eye  is  indicated  in  feet.  The  height  of  the 
eye  above  the  ground  is  added  to  this  reading  if  the  measurement 
is  on  the  level,  or  a  second  sight  may  be  made  to  the  base  of  the 
tree  and  the  reading  noted  on  CH  added  or  subtracted,  according 
to  whether  the  base  of  the  tree  is  below  or  above  the  eye  level.  If 
in  the  instrument  as  figured,  the  base  line  had  been  100  ft.  as 
suggested,  the  height  of  the  tree  above  the  eye  is  given  as  40  ft. 
If,  however,  the  base  line  had  been  50  ft.  the  height  is  given  at  20 
ft.,  the  reading  being  taken  at  the  intersection  of  the  thread  with 
the  line  running  lengthwise  through  whatever  number  on  MC  has 
been  used  to  represent  the  base  line.  The  two  smaller  diagrams 
show  the  instrument  in  position  for  sighting  to  top  and  base  of  tree 
respectively.     In  figure  13  the  eye  is  assumed  to  be  on  the  level 


/ 


," 


./ 


.y 


/ 


W 


#5ar-^' 


Fig.  13.     Height  Measurer  in  position  for  sighting  to  top  of  tree. 


with  the  base  of  the  tree  and  only  a  single  sight  is  necessary.  In 
figure  14,  the  base  of  tree  is  below  eye  level  and  the  distance  CD 
must  be  found  by  a  downward  sight  and  added  to  the  reading 
obtained  for  BC.  It  can  be  readily  seen  from  inspection  of  the 
figures  that  the  method  is  based  upon  the  similarity  of  the  triangles 
ABC  and  ACD  with  the  smaller  triangles  abc  and  acd. 


24 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


A.^-'' 


V-Nv/  ^,> 


':tt''  ^>^^^//„ 


Fig.   14.     Height  Measurer  in  position  for  sighting  to  base  of  tree. 

Tree  Collections  —  Tlie  collecting  instinct  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  early  marks  of  a  naturalist.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  the  gathering  and  arranging  of  a  collection  is  a 
sure  means  of  becoming  familiar  with  objects  of  natural  history. 
For  many  it  has  an  irresistable  fascination.  To  the  specialist 
in  systematic  botany,  a  well  ordered  collection  is  indispensable. 
In  any  large  herbarium  it  will  be  found  that  a  considerable  part 
of  the  collections  have  been  contributed  by  amateurs.  It  is  not 
enough  to  have  a  species  represented  by  a  single  specimen.  All 
parts  of  the  plant  should  be  collected  in  different  stages  of  devel- 
opment. It  is  surprising,  therefore,  that  even  the  best  herbaria 
are  strongly  in  need  of  material  illustrating  the  winter  condition  of 
woody  plants,  although  the  winter  twigs  form  one  of  the  best 
means  of  identifying  tree  species.  Plants  vary  so  much,  whatever 
mark  of  distinction  is  considered,  that  specimens  are  desired  from 
different  situations  and  from  different  geographical  regions  in  order 
to  show  how  widely  the  individual  species  may  vary.  The  possi- 
bilities of  collecting,  therefore,  are  practically  limitless  to  those 
who  are  interested  in  this  form  of  study. 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs,  some  of  the  methods  of  tree 
study  that  it  has  been  thought  might  prove  suggestive  to  the  am- 
ateur individual  student  of  the  subject  have  been  outlined.  In 
the  remaining  sections  of  the  chapter,  the  subject  of  tree  study 
in  schools  will  be  briefly  considered.     Forestry  schools  and  for- 

Library 
N".  C,  State  College 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  25 

estry  classes  nee^  not  be  discussed  in  this  connection.       An  inti- 
mate practical  knowledge  of  trees  is  the  goal  of  their  existence. 

Tree  Study  in  High  Schools  and  Colleges  —  Botany  in  colleges 
and  in  high  schools  under  college  influences  gives  in  general 
little  encouragement  for  outdoor  work.  This  is  due  in  part 
to  the  relative  ease  of  handling  students  indoors,  but  more 
perhaps  to  a  reaction  against  the  somewhat  narrow  botany 
of  the  earlier  naturalists  which  consisted  largely  in  becoming  fa- 
miliar with  the  mere  names  of  the  individual  plant  species.  In 
consequence,  students  after  taking  an  elementary  course  in  the  sub- 
ject sometimes  complain  that  of  the  common  forms  they  meet  every 
day  they  are  no  better  able  to  tell  one  plant  from  another. 

Botany,  aside  from  the  subject  matter  it  may  offer  to  the  bot- 
anical specialist,  to  the  horticulturist,  or  to  the  forester,  may  rea- 
sonably be  included  with  other  sciences  in  a  general  college  course 
upon  tAvo  grounds :  —  First,  the  power  it  may  be  expected  to  give 
the  student  to  observe  accurately,  to  form  correct  conclusions  from 
the  facts  in  hand  and  to  express  his  thoughts  with  clearness: 
Second,  the  accumulation  of  a  body  of  facts  that  will  tend  to  make 
the  world  about  us  more  intelligible  and  life,  therefore,  more  in- 
teresting. Too  frequently  we  forget  that  the  student  and  the 
student's  viewpoint  are  of  more  importance  than  botany  and  the 
botanist's  viewpoint.  True  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  of 
the  internal  structure  and  physiology  of  plants  is  necessary  to  an 
understanding  of  their  life  activities  and  rightly  forms  a  promi- 
nent part  of  the  result  obtained  from  a  general  course  in  botany. 
To  make  anatomy  and  physiology  the  total  result  is  to  take  some- 
what the  viewpoint  of  those  books  on  systematic  botany  which 
refuse  to  consider  a  plant  that  has  acquired  enough  human  in- 
terest to  be  brought  into  cultivation,  unless  the  form  in  question 
is  also  found  growing  wild. 

The  questions  of  a  layman  will  often  give  us  a  clue  as  to  what 
parts  of  our  subject  are  of  most  general  interest.  The  inner  mech- 
anisms and  functions  of  a  bird  may  be  nearly  of  as  much  interest  to 
the  laboratory  specialist  as  they  are  of  value  to  the  bird  itself,  yet 
they  are  of  minor  interest  to  the  general  public.  In  the  writer^s 
experience.  Bird  Study  and  Tree  Study  form  two  of  the  most 
popular  summer  school  courses,  and  largely  it  is  believed  because 
their  air  has  been  an  out-of-doors  acquaintance  with  common  forms 


26  TEEES  IN  WINTER 

of  wide  familiarity.  If,  in  our  general  course,  we  should  teach 
our  plant  forms  more  from  the  standpoint  of  the  human  interest 
they  arouse,  and  less  from  that  of  their  evolutionary  relationshipb. 
we  need  not  thereby  suffer  in  either  of  our  ideals  of  training  for 
power  or  of  acquiring  a  stock  of  useful  information.  Even  the 
much-maligned  analysis  work,  the  identification  of  plants  by  an 
artificial  key,  has  certain  peculiar  educational  advantages  too  often 
neglected.  The  use  of  a  key  demands  accurate  observation  and 
careful  judgment.  If  these  are  not  given,  the  student  discovers 
his  mistake  by  failure  to  find  the  correct  species  and  is  automatically 
led  to  repeat  his  observations. 

Field  Worl'  —  Field  work  to  be  successful  must  be  fully 
as  carefully  planned  as  indoor  laboratory  work.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  exercise  from  degenerating  into  a  mere  picnic,  the  purpose 
of  the  trip  should  be  definite  and  the  objects  to  be  observed  or  the 
problems  to  be  studied  not  too  numerous.  It  is  as  important  to 
decide  what  to  leave  out  as  what  to  include.  The  ground  to  be 
visited  should  be  gone  over  by  the  teacher  before  each  excursion 
for  the  same  reason  that  demonstration  experiments  in  physics  or 
chemistry  must  be  tried  in  private  in  order  to  insure  their  successful 
performance  before  a  class. 

Experience  has  shown  that  some  form  of  report,  though  but 
brief,  is  as  necessary  with  students  out  of  doors  as  their  records 
made  within  the  laboratory.  Further,  the  number  of  students 
that  can  be  successfully  handled  on  a  field  trip  is  a  matter  to  be 
considered.  It  will  differ  with  the  character  of  the  work  and  the 
skill  of  the  teacher.  Lack  of  proper  regard  for  some  of  the  re- 
quirements of  outdoor  work  with  students  has  often  foreordained 
well-meaning  efforts  to  failure,  but  such  failures  do  not  detract 
from  the  education  value  of  the  work  when  properly  planned  and 
executed. 

The  writer  has  conducted  his  identificational  tree  study  in  the 
following  manner.  A  squad  of  students  provided  with  writing  ma- 
terial is  brought  to  the  first  tree  to  be  investigated  and  without 
being  told  its  name  they  are  asked  to  write  down  independently, 
each  for  himself,  what  they  think  the  tree  is.  After  they  have 
made  their  guess,  its  correct  name  is  given  and  they  are  led  to 
work  out  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  tree  taking  with 
them  for  later  comparison  specimens  of  leaves,  twigs  or  fruit  ac- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  27 

cording  to  the  season.  Each  tree  on  the  trip  is  first  guessed  by 
the  student  before  it  is  discussed  by  the  instructor.  A  correct 
guess  counts  1  for  such  fonns  as  the  Tulip  Tree,  which  is  the 
only  one  of  its  genus  in  the  region.  Sugar  Maple  if  correctly 
guessed  would  score  2,  since  there  are  several  Maples  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. The  guess,  Maple  or  Red  Maple  for  the  Sugar  Maple, 
would  score  1,  or  one-half  the  value  given  the  full  correct  name. 
At  the  end  of  the  trip  the  trees  are  reviewed  from  the  specimens 
collected  and  the  individual  scores  of  the  students  calculated  and 
reported.  Naturally  these  scores  are  not  counted  at  all  as  marks 
in  making  up  the  class  standing,  but  the  scoring  game  has  been 
found  to  add  a  decided  zest  to  the  exercises.  The  report  called 
for  consists  of  a  list  of  the  trees  studied  with  a  very  brief  character- 
ization of  the  distinguishing  features  of  each.  At  the  beginning  of 
each  new  trip,  the  trees  of  the  previous  exercises  are  reviewed  from 
specimens.  These  frequent  reviews  are  essential.  -Occasionally, 
quizzes  consisting  in  identifying  actual  specimens  on  exhibition 
or  the  trees  themselves  are  of  value.  In  summer  the  distinguish- 
ing characters  have  been  taken  from  the  leaves,  in  winter  from 
the  twigs.  The  latter  from  reasons  of  convenience  have  been 
studied  largely  in  the  laboratory. 

Ability  to  distinguish  trees  from  a  distance  by  habit  and  bark 
characters  has  been  much  more  readily  acquired  by  students  than 
was  at  first  thought  possible.  On  account  of  weather  considerations, 
this  work  has  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  March  and  April,  before 
the  opening  of  the  buds  and  while  the  method  of  branching  in  con- 
sequence is  still  discernible.  The  process  has  been  the  same  as  in 
the  field  exercises  already  described,  except  that  the  student's  guess 
must  be  made  before  coming  near  enough  to  see  the  detailed  marks 
of  distinction.  A  closer  approach  determines  the  correctness  of 
his  first  impression.  In  review,  unfamiliar  photographs,  respec- 
tively of  the  habit  and  the  bark  of  the  tree  in  question  are  ex- 
posed together  and  slowly  carried  from  one  end  of  a  row  of  stu- 
dents to  the  other.  This  method  is  in  imitation  of  the  car  window 
identification  of  trees,  and  it  is  surprising  how  readily  photographs 
can  be  thus  recognized  when  once  a  familiarity  with  the  distin- 
guishing habit  and  bark  characters  has  been  acquired.  Lantern 
slides  would  doubtless  be  of  much  service  in  this  connection. 


28  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Students'  Collections  —  Students'  collections  formed  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  older  courses  ill  botany.  To  identify, 
collect,  press  and  mount  a  hundred  specimens,  as  was  frequently 
required,  gave  certainly  an  added  familiarity  with  plants,  but  the 
amount  of  mechanical  labor  involved  is  unduly  large  in  proportion 
to  the  results  obtained. 

With  trees  the  flowers  are  of  minor  interest,  leaves  and  winter 
twigs  furnishing  the  chief  identificational  features  avail- 
able for  collections.  Individual  leaves  can  be  easily  pressed, 
placing  them  between  the  pages  of  a  book  being  frequently  suffi- 
cient. Winter  twigs  need  no  preparation  before  being  sewed 
or  otherwise  fastened  to  mounting  paper.  It  has  been  the  writer's 
practice  to  require  of  students  a  small  collection  of  leaves  in  the 
fall  and  a  similar  collection  of  twigs  in  the  winter  or  early  spring. 
Accompanying  each  leaf  or  twig  is  given  a  short  characterization 
emphasizing  its  chief  marks  of  distinction.  The  specimens  may  be 
largely  collected  on  the  field  trips  and  the  mechanical  labor  of 
preparation  is  not  excessive. 

More  elaborate  individual  work  can  be  done  by  the  student  if 
time  is  available.  Keys  can  be  worked  out  for  various  groups 
of  trees.  A  tree  book  may  be  made  including  some  of  the  com- 
monest forms  within  a  limited  area  and  representing  them  by  spec- 
imens, by  drawings,  by  photographs  or  by  half-tone  pictures.  Such 
a  tree  book  may  be  with  or  without  written  matter  on  each  tree 
represented,  but  its  preparation  would  assuredly  give  one  knowl- 
edge of  the  trees  studied.  In  the  writer's  experience  the  most  ef- 
fective way  to  learn  about  trees  is  to  write  a  book  on  the  subJ9ct. 

A  school  collection  for  permanent  exhibition  is  desirable  and 
warrants  a  greater  outlay  of  time  and  labor  than  could  be  given 
to  the  work  by  the  individual  students.  Each  tree  should  be  rep- 
sented  by  at  least  a  leaf,  a  winter  twig,  a  picture  of  the  bark  and 
one  of  the  habit.  The  fruit  is  also  generally  desirable.  Among 
the  things  that  can  be  added  to  advantage  are  the  flowers,  a  seed- 
ling, an  outline  map  with  shaded  areas  showing  the  distribution  of 
the  species,  and  a  series  of  wood  sections  such  as  may  be  obtained 
of  R.  B.  Hough,  Lo\wille,  N.  Y.  These  specimens  of  each  species 
may  be  mounted  together  on  cotton  in  shallow,  glass-front  boxes 
such  as  the  Eiker  cases,  or  conveniently  exhibited  behind  glass 
which  is  passepartouted  to  a  firm  back  in  the  manner  in  which  pic- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  29 

tures  are  frequently  mounted,  Ivirkwood  in  Kature  Study 
Eeview  for  January,  1912,  describes  a  method  of  mounting 
specimens  in  large  wooden  frames,  but  if  many  cases  are  to  be 
stored  or  exhibited  the  surface  dimensions  as  also  the  thickness  of 
the  mounts  must  be  kept  within  limits. 

Tree  Study  in  Graded  Schools  —  On  account  of  their  con- 
spicuousness,  accessibility,  beauty  and  utility,  trees  have  formed 
an  important  element  in  outlines  of  nature  study  courses 
recommended  for  elementary  schools.  Coulter  &  Patterson  in  their 
Practical  Nature  Study,  to  mention  but  a  single  book,  give  valuable 
suggestions  on  tree  study  with  typical  lesson  plans  and  topical 
outlines  by  grades  and  seasons.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  468,  en- 
titled ''Forestry  in  Nature  Study/'  may  be  obtained  free  by  address- 
ing The  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  interested  in  nature  work. 
This  bulletin  gives  outlines  for  courses  of  study  for  the  different 
grades  and  a  valuable  list  of  supplementary  reading  and  reference 
books  for  nature  study  teachers  together  with  a  key  to  the  more 
common  genera  of  trees  based  on  leaf  characters.  In  view  of  the 
accessibility  of  this  publication  and  the  literature  therein  cited,  it 
would  be  inappropriate  to  enter  into  an  extended  discussion  of  the 
place  of  tree  study  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  present  book 
would  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  trees  in  winter  are  more 
available  for  purposes  of  study  than  most  have  believed.  The  in- 
terest shown  by  classes  of  summer  school  teachers  in  identifying 
specimens  of  twigs  collected  the  previous  winter  indicates  that  the 
winter  study  of  trees  can  be  taken  up  with  enthusiasm  by  teachers 
in  their  schools.  In  our  experience,  the  winter  identification  of 
trees  has  proven  to  students  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects 
of  their  course.  It  is  of  decided  value  for  its  training  in  the  power 
of  accurate  observation.  The  work  comes  at  a  time  when  mate- 
rial for  natural  history  study  seems  scanty  and  might  therefore  be 
used  to  bridge  over  the  period  between  fall  and  spring  which  are 
unfortunately  considered  by  many  the  only  seasons  when  study  of 
outdoor  life  is  possible  in  the  schools. 

The  markings  on  a  branchlet  enable  us  to  read  a  tree's  name. 
They  may  also  give  us  a  chapter  in  the  tree's  past  history  as  is 
shown  on  page  38.  By  placing  twigs  in  water  in  tlie  late  winter 
the  bud  may  be  forced  and  we  may  learn  the  future  possibilities 


30  TREES  IN  WINTER 

that  lie  bound  up  in  a  winter  twig.  The  name  of  a  tree  and  its 
past  and  future  life,  however,  form  but  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  a  tree.  What  are  its  relations  to  utility  and  to  human 
enjoyment,  are  questions  that  should  not  be  neglected.  The  skill- 
ful teacher  will  be  able  to  correlate  tree  study  with  other  work  and 
so  direct  the  natural  enthusiasm  of  children  for  outdoor  observa- 
tion that  it  may  not  become  a  burden  to  the  daily  program. 

An  appreciation  of  natural  beauty  is  a  recognized  object  of  nature 
study.  It  must  in  general,  however,  remain  a  valuable  by-product 
rather  than  the  immediate  object  of  pursuit.  An  unreasoning  ap- 
peal to  mere  wonder  and  admiration  at  the  beauties  of  nature  is 
likely  to  have  an  effect  opposite  to  that  desired.  The  appeal  must 
come  in  the  way  of  observations  and  problems  and  the  problems 
must  be  definite.  What  is  the  most  beautiful  single  tree,  individ- 
ual group  of  trees,  the  most  beautiful  street  or  the  most  beautiful 
home  with  tree  surroundings  in  the  neighborhood?  What  are  the 
elements  that  make  them  interesting?  From  what  points  of  view 
are  they  most  pleasing,  and  what  is  it  that  gives  these  viewpoints  an 
advantage  over  others?  Such  questions,  modified  to  suit  the 
grade  of  the  pupils,  have  been  suggested  by  Professor  Waugh  of 
Amherst,  and  the  writer  can  confirm  their  usability  with  students. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  31 


PART  I. 

PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES. 

CHAPTEE  I 
STEUCTUEE,  LIFE  AND  GEOWTH  OF  A  TEEE. 

Before  discussing  the  planting  and  care  of  trees,  it  is  well  to  con- 
sider briefly  the  structure,  life  and  growth  of  the  individual  tree 
itself.  For  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  subject  the  reader  may  be  re- 
ferred to  the  current  text  books  on  botany  and  forestry. 

A  tree  is  a  living  thing  and  as  such  has  the  same  great  problems 
to  meet  that  face  all  living  organisms  —  plants  as  well  as  animals. 
It  must  have  food  in  order  to  live  and  grow  and  it  must  provide  for 
a  continuation  of  its  kind.  Animals  are  able  to  move  about  in 
search  for  their  food  which  they  obtain  ready  made  from  other 
animals  or  from  plants.  The  tree,  however,  like  other  green 
plants  is  deprived  not  only  of  the  power  of  locomotion  but  also  of 
the  power  of  using  food  made  by  other  organisms.  It  has,  there- 
fore, to  manufacture  its  own  food.  This  it  does  by  combining 
food  constituents  from  the  soil  with  that  from  the  air  and  is 
therefore  a  manufacturer  as  well  as  a  consumer  of  its  own  products. 
In  Chapter  I,  we  shall  consider  the  different  organs  of  the  tree  in 
relation  to  the  manufacture  of  plant  food,  to  growth  and  to  pro- 
duction. 

The  Parts  of  a  Tree  —  There  are  three  main  parts  to  a  tree 
— roots,  leaves  and  stem.  The  roots  obtain  water  with  dissolved 
mineral  water  from  the  soil  and  anchor  the  tree  in  place. 
The  leaves  have  a  double  function.  They  gather  carbonic  acid 
gas  from  the  air  and  they  combine  this  gaseous  food  constituent 
from  the  air  with  the  food  constituents  from  the  soil  in  the  manu- 
facture of  plant  food.  The  stem  connects  the  roots  with  the  leaves 
and  raises  the  latter  to  a  position  favorable  for  carrying  on  their 
work.  The  three  main  parts  of  a  tree  may  now  be  considered 
more  in  detail.  The  diagram  in  figure  15  may  serve  to  make  the 
explanations  clearer. 


32 


TREES  IN-  WINTER 


carbon    dioT^icj^ 

i 


Fig.   15.     Diagram    to    illustrate    parts    and    functions    of   a    tree.       (Modi- 
fied after  Fernow). 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


33 


The  Root  —  According  to  their  position,  the  roots  of  a  tree 
may  be  classified  into  tap-roots  which  grow  directly  down- 
ward, surface  or  tracing  roots  which  occupy  a  shallow  layer  just 
below  ground,  and  roots  which  take  a  position  intermediate  between 
these  two  types.  Some  trees  like  the  Hickory,  the  Bur  Oak  and 
the  White  Oak  regularly  develop  a  strong  deep-seated  tap-root 
and  in  consequence  are  able  to  draw  water  from  the  lower  levels 
but  are  difficult  to  transplant;  others  like  the  Birches  and 
Spruces  have  only  surface  roots  and  are  therefore  dependent 
upon  the  supply  of  moisture  in  the  shallow  upper  layers.  Most 
of  our  trees,  like  the  Maple  and  Ash,  are  found  to  have  a  com- 
bination of  both  kinds.  Many  fonns,  moreover,  in  which  one 
of  these  two  root  types  predominates  are  able  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  condition  of  the  soil  in  which  they  grow.  Thus  at  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  a  small  Bur  Oak  growing  on  dry, 
gravelly  soil  is  reported  to  have  developed  a  tap-root  20  feet  long, 


Fig.  16.  Seedling-  of  Hornbeam,  after  Strasburger.  r  zone  of  root- 
hairs  near  root-tip;  hw,  main  roots;  sw,  lateral  roots;  1,1,  foliage  leaves; 
e,    seed-leaves. 


34  TREES  IN  WINTER 

while  on  moist,  fertile  clay  land  in  the  same  section  such  trees 
are  believed  to  have  tap-roots  seldom  more  than  six  feet  long. 

Absorption  of  water  and  minerals  in  solution  is  the  great  service 
of  roots,  but  it  is  only  their  smallest  branchlets  —  the  root  fibrils 
—  that  are  capable  of  taking  in  water.  The  older  parts  are  soon 
covered  with  a  waterproof  layer  of  bark  and  are  of  service  only  in 
conducting  fluids  to  the  stem  and  in  holding  the  tree  in  place.  The 
fibrils,  moreover,  do  not  take  in  fluids  throughout  their  whole  ex- 
tent but  almost  exclusively  through  fine  root-hairs,  which  in  the 
shape  of  minute  tabular  cells  form  a  velvety  covering  on  their 
younger  portions  (fig.  16).  These  root-hairs  are  short-lived,  en- 
during only  for  a  few  days  or  at  most  weeks.  New  hairs,  however, 
are  constanly  being  formed  toward  the  root  tips  as  those  further 
back  die  and  shrivel  up.  In  some  trees  it  has  been  shown  that  fine 
threads  of  various  species  of  moulds  growing  in  the  soil  surround 
the  root  fibrils  and  take  the  place  of  root-hairs,  but  it  still  remains 
true  that  only  the  youngest  parts  of  roots  are  capable  of  absorbing 
water.  It  can  be  readily  understood,  therefore,  how  serious  the 
damage  may  be  to  the  tree  when  its  almost  invisible  root  fibrils  are 
injured  in  any  way  as  by  transplanting.  Fortunately  roots  can 
rapidly  regenerate  lost  parts  and,  if  the  need  of  water  is  lessened 
by  judicious  pruning  of  the  crown,  the  new  rootlets  formed  will  be 
able  to  absorb  enough  water  to  keep  the  tree  from  withering. 

How  far  roots  extend  from  the  trunk  is  not  easy  to  observe. 
Roots  of  the  Elm  have  been  found  clogging  up  drain  pipes  150  feet 
from  the  tree,  but  such  a  distance  must  be  exceptional.  Garden-- 
ers  claim  that  the  parts  underground  extend  laterally  as  far  as 
those  above  ground  and  such  a  condition  would  bring  the  young 
feeding  rootlets  directly  under  the  edges  of  the  leafy  crown.  While 
this  is  far  from  being  strictly  true,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
absorbing  fibrils  are  in  a  circle  at  some  distance  from  the  trunk.  In 
consequence,  any  such  treatment  of  the  soil,  as  adding  water  or 
food  constituents,  should  take  place  at  some  distance  from  the 
trunk  rather  than  at  its  base,  in  order  to  benefit  the  tree. 

In  order  to  live  and  grow,  roots  must  have  food.     This  is  made 

for  them  in  the  leaves  and  handed  down  through  the  stem  and 

older  roots.     If  the  supply  of  food  is  diminished  by  a  partial  loss 

of  leaves,  some  of  the  roots  die.     If  the  suj^ply  of  water  and  food 

constituents  from  the  soil  is  lessened  by  root  injuiy  a  part  of  the 

leafy  crown  will  die.     A  rather  definite  balance  exists  between  the 

extent  of  the  root  system  and  that  of  the  crown. 

PROPERTY  Of 
ma.  r*  aa  #uu  i  rrr  i  iddkom 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


35 


Fig-.  17.  Cross  section  through  a  Beech  leaf,  after  Strasburger.  ep, 
ep",  epidermis,  the  protective  covering-  of  upper  and  lower  surface  of 
leaf;  pi,  s  and  sp,  cells  containing-  little  granules  of  leaf-g-reen  or 
chlorophyll — the  places  where  plant  food  is  made;  st,  opening  through 
the  epidermis  connecting-  the  air  passages  in  the  leaf  with  the  free  air 
outside. 

All  parts  of  plants  need  oxygen.  Eoots  obtain  it  from  the  air 
in  the  soil.  If  the  roots  are  too  deeply  covered,  as  when  the 
ground  is  filled  in  above  them  in  changing  the  grade,  or  if  the  air 
in  the  soil  is  driven  out  by  an  excess  of  water,  most  trees  are  likely 
to  suffer.  Some  forms  like  the  Elm,  however,  are  naturally  able  to 
endure  such  unfavorable  conditions. 

The  Leaf  —  It  has  been  already  said  that  trees  are  like  ani- 
mals in  their  general  food  requirements,  but  that  they  have  the 
added  characteristic  of  being  able  to  make  out  of  elements  obtained 
from  the  soil  and  from  the  air  the  complex  food  which  they  require. 
This  manufacture  of  plant  food  takes  place  within  the  leaf  in  mi- 
nute granules  of  leaf-green  or  chlorophyll  (fig.  17).  Sunlight  is 
necessary  and  furnishes  the  energy  for  the  process.  Carbonic  acid 
gas  from  the  air  enters  through  small  openings  into  the  leaf  and  is 
there  broken  down  into  oxygen  and  carbon.  The  oxygen  is  re- 
turned to  the  air  in  the  pure  state,  while  the  carbon  is  united  with 
the  water  and  minerals  from  the  soil.  The  complex  plant  food 
which  is  thus  built  up,  is  transported  to  all  the  growing  parts  of  the 
tree  and  is  used  in  the  construction  of  new  leaves,  roots  and  wood. 
Carbon  is  the  conspicuous  element  in  wood,  comprising  one-half  of 
its  dry  weight,  and  in  the  production  of  charcoal  is  left  in  nearly  a 
pure  state.  When  wood  is  comjiletely  burned,  the  process  ob- 
served in  the  leaves  is  reversed.  The  water  passes  off  as  vapor,  the 
mineral  matter  is  left  in  the  fonn  of  ashes,  while  the  carbon  re- 
unites with  the  oxA'gen  of  the  air  in  the  formation  of  cabonic  acid 
gas.  The  leaf  may  be  compared  to  a  factory.  Carl)onic  acid  gas, 
water  and  dissolved  minerals  are  the  raw  materials.     Plant  food 


36  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

is  the  finished  product.     Sunlight  is  the  energy  which  runs  the 
machinery. 

The  fact  that  sunlight  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  plant 
food  in  the  leaves,  explains  the  poor  development  of  branches  that 
are  partially  shaded.  The  Post  Oak,  shown  on  page  101,  w^as  in- 
terfered with  by  a  neighboring  tree  on  the  right.  The  scant  growth 
of  limbs  on  this  side  is  the  result.  The  lower  branches  of  trees 
in  the  woods  die  and  are  ^'^self-pruned"  when  their  leaves  are  so 
shaded  that  they  are  no  longer  able  to  make  sufficient  food  for  a  con- 
tinuation of  growth.  It  is  for  this  reason,  that  all  forest-grown 
trees  tend  to  produce  tall  trunks  with  but  little  branching  (fig.  19) 
while  trees  in  the  open  (fig.  18)  branch  more  freely  and  are  there- 
fore better  able  to  express  the  habit  characters  peculiar  to  the 
species. 

Species  of  trees  differ  in  their  ability  to  tolerate  shading.  There 
are  "tolerant"  forms  like  the  Hemlock,  the  Beech  and  the  Sugar 
Maple  that  are  able  to  grow  under  the  shade  of  other  trees,  and 
"intolerant"  forms  like  the  Poplars  and  Birches  that  are  killed  by 
a  relatively  small  amount  of  shading.  In  planting  groups  the  rela- 
tive tolerance  of  the  forms  represented  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 

Although  the  leaves  are  arranged  in  a  position  favorable  to  illum- 
ination, they  are  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  conditions  favorable 
to  evaporation.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  Beech  110  years  old 
"transpired"  through  its  leaves  approximately  2,250  gallons  of 
water  during  a  single  summer  and  that  an  Oak  with  some  700,000 
leaves  transpired  about  180  gallons  daily.  Such  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  lost  by  the  leaves  must  be  made  good  by  the  roots 
or  the  tree  will  perish  from  thirst.  A  diminished  root  absorption, 
brought  about  by  injury  during  transplanting  or  caused  in  any 
other  way,  can  be  neutralized  by  pruning  the  crown  and  thus  reduc- 
ing the  amount  of  leaf  surface  exposed  to  evaporation. 
'  Trees  that  drop  their  leaves  all  at  once  are  called  "diciduous"  in 
distinction  to  our  Evergreens  which  retain  their  foliage  through- 
out the  winter.  The  latter,  however,  are  not  stnctly  evergreen. 
In  the  White  Pine  for  example  (page  211),  leaf  scare  can  be  found 
in  increasing  numbers  on  second  and  third  year's  growth  and  show 
that  in  this  species  the  fall  of  the  foliage  is  gradual  and  that  its  in- 
dividual leaves  usually  do  not  remain  on  the  tree  more  than  three 
years.  The  evergreen  character  is  generally  associated  with  cone- 
bearing  forms.       The  Holly  is  the  only  broad-leaved  tree  of  the 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


37 


38  TREES  IN  WINTER 

northeastern  United  States  that  is  evergreen,  and  the  Larch  is  our 
only  conifer  that  is  deciduous.  Some  trees,  however,  like  certain 
species  of  Magnolia,  are  deciduous  in  New  England  and  evergreen 
in  the  southern  states. 

The  bare-twigged  condition  prevents  the  tree  from  suffering  a 
more  rapid  loss  of  water  than  its  roots  could  suppply  in  the  winter 
season  if  the  broad,  thin  leaves  were  left  exposed  to  evaporation.  In 
the  autumn  the  living  substance  of  the  leaf  is  broken  up  and  with 
all  the  food  remaining  is  withdrawn  into  the  branches.  Only  the 
framework  remains  and  the  colors  left  by  the  disintegration  of  the 
green  chlorophyll.  The  leaf  has  served  its  function  as  a  machine 
for  the  manufacture  of  plant  food  and  is  now  ready  for  the  scrap 
heap.  Before  it  dies,  however,  a  separating  layer  forms  at  the  base 
of  the  leaf  stalk  and  heals  the  wound  before  the  leaf  is  abstricted. 
Cold  or  dryness  may  hasten  the  process,  but  an  early  frost  may  kill 
the  leaves  and  prevent  their  falling  in  the  normal  fashion. 

Not  only  the  fall  of  leaves  but  also  their  autumn  coloring  is  gen- 
erally independent  of  frost  and  may  at  times  occur  even  in  mid- 
summer. The  trees  of  the  northeastern  United  States  show  a  more 
brilliant  coloring  than  those  in  the  more  humid  climate  of  Europe, 
and  even  our  native  species  are  said  to  have  duller  foliage  when 
grown  abroad. 

The  Stem  —  The  stem  of  a  tree  has  the  function  of  connect- 
ing the  roots  with  the  leafy  crown  and  of  raising  the  latter  above 
the  shade  of  competing  forms.  A  branchlet  of  the  Horse-chestnut 
(fig.  20)  may  be  taken  as  a  convenient  form  to  illustrate  the  vari- 
ous markings  found  on  a  young  stem.  The  large  triangular  patches 
resembling  somewhat  closed  horse-shoes  in  shape  are  the  leaf-scars 
showing  where  the  bases  of  the  leaf-stalks  were  attached  to  the  twig 
before  their  fall.  The  little  dots  corresponding  to  the  nail  holes 
in  a  horse-shoe  are  the  hundle-scars  and  mark  the  location  of  the 
so-called  fibro-vascular  bundles  that  run  through  the  leaf -stalks  and 
connect  with  the  veins  of  the  leaf  acting  thus  as  the  channels  for 
the  transference  of  raw  material  and  manufactured  food  to  and 
from  the  leaf.  The  leaf-scars  are  located  at  the  nodes  and  the  por- 
tion between  the  nodes  is  called  the  internode.  Scattered 
along  the  twig  are  little  dots,  the  lenUcels,  which  are  openings  that 
function  to  a  certain  extent  like  breathing  pores. 


PLANTING  AND  OAEE  OF  TREES 


39 


Terminal  Bud    ^ 

Axillary  Bud 


Fruit  Scac 


\._lnternode 
s Node 

Lenticel 


Leaf  Scar  , 
Bundle  Scar-.— 1 


Scale  Scars  «_ 
DormBini  Bud— d 


""v..l  year's  growth 


^.-.Pith 


Fig.   20.   Twig  of  Horse-chestnut. 

Above  each  leaf-scar  is  normally  produced  an  axillary-hud  so 
called  because  located  in  the  axil  or  angle,  made  between  the  twig 
and  the  leaf-stalk  when  the  latter  was  present.  The  lateral  hud^ 
are  in  distinction  to  the  terminal  huds  at  the  ends  of  the  twigs. 

Buds  that  produce  shoots  with  leaves  are  called  leaf  huds.  Cer- 
tain of  the  buds  — the  floiver  huds  — do  not  continue  the  growth 
of  the  twig  but  form  the  flowers  which  develop  into  fruit.  AVhere 
the  individual  fruit  (in  the  Horse-chestnut  the  fruit  cluster)  was 


40 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


attached,  a  fruit-scar  is  left,  and  these  fruit  scars  furnish  evidence 
of  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  in  previous  years. 

Each  bud  contains  the  rudiments  of  next  year's  growth  with 
shortened  internodes  and  minute  leaves  folded  together  like  a  fan 
and  packed  away  within  the  protective  covering  of  the  bud-scales. 
Buds  begin  to  form  by  May  or  June,  but  remain  during  winter  in  a 
condensed  condition.  Growth  in  the  spring  consists,  foi  the  most 
part,  of  a  rapid  elongation  of  the  internodes  and  an  enlargement 
of  the  parts  which  are  ^already  formed  in  the  bud,  and  may  be  com- 
pleted in  a  few  days.     For  most  trees,  the  number  of  leaves  and 


Fig.  21.  Diagram  of  three-year-old  tree  after  Mueller,  to  show,  on 
side  B,  the  number  of  branches  theoretically  possible  if  all  the  buds 
develop  and,  on  side  A,  the  number  actually  produced.  1  and  2  mark 
the  end  of  the  first  and  second  year's  g-rowth  respectively.  The  branches 
have  developed  from  axillary  buds  such  as  are  seen  on  the  last  year's 
g'rowth  above  2. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  41 

flowers  a  bud  is  capable  of  producing  is  determined  not  during  the 
spring  elongation  of  the  bud  but  during  its  formation  the  previous 
3^ear.  At  least  a  single  bud  is  usually  formed  above  each  leaf.  Of 
all  the  buds  produced  in  a  season  only  a  very  small  number  ever 
start  and  grow  into  branchlets,  and  the  great  majority  of  these 
branchlets  eventually  die  and  are  pruned  off  by  the  tree.  There 
is  a  struggle  for  existence  among  buds  and  branchlets  as  well  as 
among  seedlings,  and  the  strongest  alone  survive.  The  accompany- 
ing diagram  (fig.  21)  shows  the  condition  that  might  result  from 
a  free  development  of  buds  and  branches  in  contrast  with  the  con- 
dition that  usually  exists.  Dormant  buds  frequently  retain  their 
vitality  for  many  years  and  may  be  forced  into  development  if 
the  growth  above  them  is  injured.  Adventitious  buds  are  those  that 
form  outside  of  their  regular  position  at  the  nodes.  They  are 
responsible  for  the  sprouts  that  regularly  fonn  on  the  cut  stump 
of  Chestnut  and  many  other  of  our  deciduous  trees.  Poplars  and 
Willows  (p.  351)  produce  them  in  abundance  when  the  limbs 
are  cut  back  or  ^^pollarded." 

The  bud-scales  are  modified  leaves  which  protect  the  parts  with- 
in from  mechanical  injury  and  from  loss  of  moisture,  but  except 
for  the  prevention  of  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  they  are  of 
little  value  as  a  protection  against  cold  as  is  so  often  supposed.  At 
fallirig  they  leave  a  ring  or  band  of  scale-scars  marking  the  limit 
of  each  yearns  growth.  These  bands  often  remain  distinct  for 
many  3- ears  (see  twig  of  Beech  p.  295)  and  by  counting  their  number 
the  age  of  the  branchlet  may  be  estimated.  Thus  it  can  be  readily 
seen  that  the  figure  of  the  Horse-chestnut  represents  growth  made 
during  three  years.  Each  3'ear  a  ring  of  new  Avood  is  formed  just 
underneath  the  bark,  and  a  count  of  the  number  of  these  annual 
rings  between  the  central  pith  and  the  bark,  as  seen  in  a  cross 
section  of  a  branch  or  trunk,  will  likewise  give  the  age  of  the  part 
investigated.  The  uppermost  buds  of  a  year's  growth  are  gen^ 
erally  the  largest  and  most  likely  to  develop  into  branches  the 
following  spring.  In  some  species,  as  many  of  the  Evergreens, 
and  the  Carolina  Poplar  (p.  261)  for  example,  the  branches  com- 
ing from  these  more  vigorous  buds  form  regular  whorls  along  the 
trunk  at  the  upper  part  of  each  year's  growth  and  afford  for  such 
species  a  third  means  of  estimating  the  age. 


42 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


By  aid  of  the  markings  just  discussed  on  the  stem  the  past  his- 
tory of  the  tree  can  be  deciphered  often  for  a  considerable  num- 

}—■ -  Outer  Bark 
Inner  BarK 
--Cambium^ 

r  Summer  Wood 
■Spring  Wood 
|-AnnualPmg 

-Medullary  Raij 


Med.  "Ray 


' — Inner  Bark  "">^'' 
Sap  wood  --' 
-Outer  BarK 


^^  Spring  Wood 


Heart  wood 

Fig.  22.     Diagram   to   iUustrate   structure   of  a   block   of  Oak   wood. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  43 

ber  of  years.     The  parts  of  a  twig  as  furnishing  a  means  of  iden- 
tification is  further  discussed  in  Part  II. 

,A  general  idea  of  the  internal  structure  of  an  older  stem  may 
be  obtained  by  the  study  of  a  block  of  Oak  wood  (fig.  22).  Aside 
from  the  relatively  narrow  pith  in  the  center,  the  trunk  of  a  tree  is 
made  up  of  three  general  regions :  —  the  protective  covering  of 
harh  outside,  the  thick  cylinder  of  wood  within  and  the  thin  sheet 
of  delicate  tissue  forming  the  camhium  between  these  two  regions. 
The  cambium  layer  is  of  special  interest  since  it  is  the  only  part 
that  remains  alive  throughout  the  growth  of  the  trees.  In  making 
a  whistle,  the  boy  finds  in  this  layer  an  easy  place  of  separation 
of  wood  from  the  bark.  Each  year  its  outer  surface  forms  a  new 
layer  of  the  bark  and  its  inner  surface  a  new  layer  of  wood.  By 
adding  an  annual  ring  of  wood  the  cambium  itself  is  pushed  out 
by  just  so  much  each  season  away  from  the  center  of  the  tree  but 
always  remains  a  narrow  layer.  The  bark,  as  well  as  the  wood,  is 
thus  increased  in  thickness  each  year,  but  unlike  the  wood,  it  is 
subjected  to  the  pressure  of  growth  from  within  and  in  most  spe- 
cies eventually  dies,  cracks  and  wears  away  on  the  outside  as  rap- 
idly as  it  is  renewed  on  its  inner  surface. 

The  annual  rings  usually  give  an  accurate  record  of  the  age  and 
rapidity  of  growth  of  a  tree,  since  defoliation  by  insect  injury  or 
other  influences  that  would  cause  a  double  period  of  growth  in  a 
single  year  are  of  rare  occurrence.  Trees  like  the  Oak  and  Ash 
produce  in  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season  large  tubular  cells 
which  extend  vertically  up  and  down  the  trunk  and  later  form  cells 
of  smaller  dimensions.  In  such  trees,  therefore,  the  porous  spring 
wood  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  denser  summer  ivood. 

At  the  end  of  a  log  a  cr-oss  section  of  the  trunk  is  exposed,  and 
on  it  can  be  seen  fine  lines  radiating  out  from  the  center.  These 
are  cut  edges  of  the  medullary  rays  or  pith  rays,  as  these  narrow 
sheets  of  tissue  are  sometimes  called.  A  section  cut  lengthwise  of 
the  log  and  parallel  to  the  annual  rings  is  called  a  tangential  sec- 
tion and  shows  the  extent  up  and  down  of  the  medullary  rays  as 
seen  in  end  view.  The  radial  section  is  made  lengthwise  of  the 
log  and  parallel  to  the  medullary  rays.  If  extended,  it  would  pass 
through  the  center  of  the  tree.  This  is  the  direction  in  which 
lumber  is  sawed  in  making  "quartered  oak."  The  shiny  streaks 
■  ^  Oak  wood  cut  in  this  fashion  are  called  the  "silver"  and  are  in 


44  TREES  IN  WINTER 

fact  medullary  rays  seen  in  surface  view.  In  the  radial  section 
the  annual  rings  are  evident  and  the  spring  wood  is  seen  to  be  made 
up  of  hollow  tubes.  In  the  tangential  section  the  rings^,  if  they 
show  at  all,  form  Vs  or  ellipses  due  to  the  saw  failing  to  cut  ex- 
actly parallel  to  the  grain.  Boards  are  generally  sawed  off  from 
parallel  sides  of  a  log  so  that,  although  the  outer  cut  is  tangential 
and  the  median  cut  is  radial  most  of  the  boards  will  be  sections 
intermediate  between  these  two.  The  markings  on  the  finished 
lumber  will  accordingly  vary  in  appearance. 

To  many  it  is  a  surprise  to  learn  that  the  large  bulk  of  a  tree 
is  dead,  literally  with  no  more  life  than  the  proverbial  barn  door. 
Hollow  trees  are  not  infrequently  found  alive  and  flourishing. 
Except  for  their  liability  to  be  blown  over,  they  often  do  not  seem  to 
be  greatly  handicapped  by  the  loss  of  inner.wood.  The  older  wood, 
therefore,  is  mainly  of  service  as  a  mechanical  means  of  support 
and  has  no  part  in  the  life  activities  of  the  tree.  In  some  fonns 
the  inner  wood  as  it  dies,  takes  on  a  darker  color  and  under  the 
name  of  heartwood  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  younger, 
lighter  colored  sapwood  toward  the  outside.  The  outer  layers  of 
the  bark  also  are  dead.  There  remains,  therefore,  as  the  essential 
living  portion  of  the  stem,  the  cambium  layer  with  the  inner  bark 
on  its  outer  side,  and  the  sapwood  just  within. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  ascending  currents  which 
carry  water  and»  dissolved  minerals  up  to  the  leaves  are  located  in 
the  sapwood.  The  inner  bark  transports  the  manufactured  food 
from  the  leaves.  If  the  inner  bark  is  severed,  as  by  "ringing," 
the  descending  sap  is  interrupted  and  the  roots  ultimately 
will  die  of  starvation.  Portions  above  the  ring  are  still  able  to 
obtain  water  and  raw  material  through  the  channels  in  the  sap- 
wood  so  that  injury  brought  about  by  girdling  may  not  make  itself 
shown  till  the  succeeding  season. 

The  cambium  layer  is  responsible  not  only  for  the  regular  for- 
mation of  wood  and  bark  but  also  for  their  regeneration.  An  in- 
jury which  exposes  the  cambium  will  excite  this  layer  to  increased 
growth  and  a  formation  of  wound  tissue  or  callus  will  result. 
Callus  spreads  gradually  in  all  directions  from  the  exposed  cam- 
bium where  it  first  makes  its  appearance.  Bark  forms  on  its  outer 
surface  as  it  slowly  seals  over  the  wound.  Unless  destructive 
wood  fungi  gain  entrance  through  the  wound,  the  healing  pro- 


PLANTING  AND  OARE  OF  TREES  45 

cess  may  be  completed  without  injury  to  the  tree.  Scars,  more  or 
less  entirely  covered  by  callus,  are  familiar  objects  on  trees  that 
have  been  pruned.  They  are  shown  in  figures  44  and  47.  The  pro- 
cess of  grafting  depends  upon  the  growing  together  of  this  wound 
tissue  found  on  two  different  twigs  when  their  cambium  layers  are 
held  in  contact. 

Reproductiofi  —  A  tree  is  a  flowering  plant.  Except  for 
a  few  forms  like  our  fruit  trees,  Magnolias,  Horse-chestnut,  Catalpa, 
Locust  and  Tulip  Tree  the  flowers  are  generally  inconspicuous 
and  consequently  often  overlooked.  From  perfect  flowers  come 
seed,  and  seeds  are  the  natural  means  of  reproduction  in  flowering 
plants.  Most  species  have  both  sexes  upon  the  same  individual, 
with  male  and  female  organs  in  the  same  flower,  or  in  separate 
blossoms  on  the  same  tree.  The  Willows,  Poplars,  and  Ashes, 
however,  have  the  different  sexes  on  separate  individuals,  and  are 
called,  therefore,  dioecious.  A  single  tree  of  a  dioecious  species 
will  bear  flowers  of  only  a  single  sex.  Cuttings  carry  the  sex  of 
the  tree  from  which  they  were  made.  Forms  like  the  Lombardy 
Poplar  which  produce  only  male  flowers  never  set  seed  and  can  be 
multiplied,  therefore,  only  by  nonsexual  methods  such  as  by 
cuttings. 

Trees  do  not  bear  with  equal  abundance  every  year.  Thus,  al- 
though a  few  cones  may  be  produced  each  season,  the  White  Pine 
in  the  northeastern  states  has  a  good  seed  year  but  once  in  about 
six  years.  Eeproduction  in  relation  to  propagation  is  further  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapter. 


46  TREES  IN  WINTER 

CHAPTEE  II 
THE  PROPAGATION  OF  TREES. 

PROPAGATION  FROM  SEEDS. 

Nature's  Way  —  The  natural  way  for  trees  to  reproduce 
their  kind  is  by  seeds.  The  trees  in  the  virgin  forest 
have  been  produced  from  seeds  and  without  the  aid  of  man.  The 
moist  iloor  of  the  forest  offers  favorable  conditions  for  the  germi- 
nation of  seed  and  the  growth  of  the  seedlings.  There  is  not 
room  for  the  development  of  all  the  trees  that  commence  growths 
Only  the  strongest  and  most  favorably  situated  individuals  survive 
and  the  less  fortunate  ones  are  overshadowed  and  are  lost  in  the 
struggle. 

Since  there  is  room  in  the  forest  for  the  development  of  only 
a  limited  number  of  trees,  nature  has  adopted  wonderful  methods 
for  the  desemination  of  seeds  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  forest. 
Some  specimens  that  commonly  grow  along  streams  make  use  of 
the  water  to  carry  their  seeds  to  distant  places  down  stream.  This 
probably  accounts  for  the  rows  of  Carolina  Poplars  and  Sycamores 
along  certain  river  banks  and  on  areas  that  are  usually  flooded  in 
the  spring.  The  seeds  of  many  other  species  are  scattered  by 
animals.  Is  it  not  probable  that  the  Hickories  and  other  nut  trees 
commonly  found  growing  along  stone  walls  have  come  from  the 
nuts  accidentally  dropped  by  squirrels  on  their  way  to  their  nest- 
ing places?  Birds  are  often  responsible  for  the  desemination  of 
fleshy  or  berry-like  seeds  of  such  species  as  the  Mulberry,  Hack- 
berry,  Sassafras,  Dogwood,  Mountain  Ash,  Hawthorn,  Shadbush, 
Holly,  Juniper,  Cedar  and  the  Cherries. 

The  most  common  agency  for  the  desemination  of  seeds  is  the 
wind.  The  seeds  of  many  species  are  equipped  with  peculiar  de- 
vices by  which  they  may  be  carried  various  distances  from  the 
parent  trees.  The  Hop  Hornbeam  seeds  carry  balloons  (see  p.  277) 
and  the  Sycamore  seeds  parachutes.  The  seeds  of  the  Catalpa  fly 
in  a  monoplane  (see  p.  429)  and  those  of  the  Elm  and  Ailanthus 
sail  through  the  air  on  flimsy  rafts,  (see  p.  391).  The  seeds  of  the 
Birches  are  constructed  in  the  form  of  tiny  birds  (see  p.  287),  while 
those  of  the  Maples  (see  p.  403)  are  supplied  with  wings  resem- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  47 

bling  those  of  certain  insects.  The  Ashes  have  dart-like  seeds  that 
shoot  through  the  air  in  great  profusion  (see  p.  423),  and  the  Bass- 
wood  seeds  (see  p.  417),  are  suspended  from  a  leafy  shield  by  means 
of  which  they  are  carried  long  distances. 

While  nature's  method  of  seeding  is  truly  unique,  it  is  also 
remarkably  extravagant.  A  very  small  percentage  of  the  seeds 
that  are  formed  ever  germinate  and  develop  into  trees.  Many  of 
them  after  falling  to  the  ground  are  destroyed  by  forest  fires. 
A  large  nimiber  are  eaten  by  insects  and  other  animals.  Many 
more  fail  to  find  suitable  locations  for  their  germination  and 
growth.  To  allow  for  this  great  waste  and  to  keep  up 
the  supply  of  the  various  species,  tree  seeds  are  bourn  in 
great  profusion.  It  is  interesting- to  estimate  the  number  of  seeds 
bourn  by  a  single  tree  of  the  more  prolific  species  like  the 
Mulberry,  the  Catalpa,  the  Sycamore,  the  Poplars,  the  Birches,  and 
some  of  the  Evergreens. 

It  may  be  plainly  seen  that  in  the  economic  production  of  tim- 
ber, natural  seeding  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  Although  in 
the  hands  of  an  expert  forester  the  natural  seeding  of  cleared  land 
from  adjacent  forests,  may  often  produce  satisfactory  results. 
Direct  planting  with  nursery-grown  trees  is  likely  to  give  quicker 
and  more  certain  results  and  furnish  only  the  desired  kinds  of 
timber. 

The  Forest  Nursery  —  While  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
seedlings  for  forest  planting  at  a  reasonable  price,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  the  farmer  or  forest  planter  cannot  grow  his  own  trees 
from  seed.  To  encourage  the  planting  of  forest  trees  some  states 
are  furnishing  young  trees  at  prices  but  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
cost  of  production.  Even  at  these  low  rates  the  planter  would  find 
it  more  satisfactory  to  grow  his  own  trees.  To  do  this  successfully 
he  needs  to  know  only  a  few  general  principles.  The  method  em- 
ployed in  the  growing  of  some  species  may  differ  slightly  from  that 
used  in  others,  but  the  principles  are  very  much  the  same  with  all. 
The  work  now  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  specialists,  but  when  farm- 
ers and  others  come  to  realize  the  ease  with  which  trees  may  be 
grown  and  to  appreciate  the  saving  in  money,  there  will  be  more 
planting  done. 

Collectfng  Seeds  for  Planting  —  On  accoimt  of  the  drffi-^ 
culty    of    collecting    and    the    exacting    requirements    in     the 


48  TREES  IN  WINTER 

handling  and  storing  of  tree  seeds^  the  price  usually  is  very  high. 
According  to  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Forestry, 
a  pound  of  Larch  seed  costs  from  $12.00  to  $16.00,  White  Pine 
from  $1.50  to  $3.00,  Sugar  Maple  .75c  to  $1.00,  and  White  Oak 
from  10c.  to  25c.  The  forest  planter,  therefore,  would  do  well 
to  collect  his  own  seed  and  thus  obviate  this  unnecessary  expense. 

In  the  collecting  of  seeds  it  is  usually  necessary  to  climb  the 
trees.  The  seeds  are  either  picked  by  hand  or  are  shaken  or  beaten 
off  and  collected  in  large  sheets  on  the  ground.  The  practice  of 
cutting  down  trees  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  their  seed  should 
be  discouraged.  Some  species,  like  the  Chestnut,  the  Beech,  the 
Hickories,  the  Oaks,  the  Walnuts,  and  the  Butternut,  are  more 
easily  gathered  after  severe  frosts.  The  work  of  gathering  seed, 
however,  extends  from  April  to  November,  according  to  the  spe- 
cies. The  season  for  some  species,  like  the  Birches,  the  Maples, 
the  Elms,  the  Poplars  and  the  Willows,  is  very  short,  while  that  for 
others,  like  the  Common  and  Honey  Locusts,  the  Catalpa,  the  Box 
Elder,  the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree,  the  Sycamore,  and  the  Ashes, 
is  more  extended  and  may  stretch  far  into  the  winter.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  state  definitely  the  exact  time  when  seeds  of  the  various 
species  should  be  collected.  Of  course  they  should  not  be  gath- 
ered until  they  are  ripe,  and  to  avoid  loss  it  is  usually  advisable 
to  collect  them  as  promptly  as  possible  after  they  reach  this  con- 
dition. Some  species  must  be  gathered  promptly  after  reaching 
maturity  if  they  are  to  be  saved  at  all.  Others  if  left  either  on  the 
tree  or  on  the  ground  are  likely  to  be  carried  away  by  squirrels. 

Storing  Seeds  —  As  a  rule,  seeds  that  mature  before  mid-summer 
should  be  sown  when  gathered.  Those  that  mature  later 
than  August  first  should  be  stored  until  spring.  Large  seeds  like 
the  nuts  and  acorns  may  be  stored  in  earth  outside  or  in  a  cold 
cellar.  The  smaller  seeds,  except  those  of  Evergreens,  may  be 
stored  in  boxes  in  thin  layers  between  layers  of  sand.  The  boxes 
should  be  buried  outside  in  the  ground  or  placed  in  a  cold  cellar. 
The  seed  of  Evergreens  requires  a  cool,  dry  place  and  is  usually 
placed  in  sacks  and  hung  in  cold  sheds  or  barns.  Some  seeds  need 
to  be  subjected  to  frost  before  they  will  germinate  and  develop 
properly.  Others  require  two  or  more  years  contact  with  the 
soil   before    they    will    germinate.       These    cases    aie    exceptions. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  49 

however,  and  are  mentioned  here  to  show  that  all  kinds  of  seed 
cannot  be  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner. 

Some  seeds  require  special  treatment  before  storing  for  the 
winter.  During  the  early  fall  most  kinds  should  be  spread  out  in 
thin  layers  in  some  cool,  airy  place,  such  as  under  a  shed  on  the 
north  side  of  other  buildings  or  on  the  upper  shelves  of  a  cool,  dry 
cellar.  Nuts  and  acorns  are  best  kept  on  the  ground  in  a  cool 
shed.  Most  kinds  require  close  attention  to  keep  them  from 
heating  and  moulding.  If  the  layers  are  too  deep  the  seed  is 
likely  to  mould,  and  if  too  shallow  it  is  likely  to  dry  out.  The 
more  succulent  seeds  should  be  in  thinner  layers  than  the  dryer 
kinds.  With  some  of  the  quickly  drying  sorts  it  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  cover  them  with  straw,  chaff,  or  a  thin  cloth.  Some 
of  the  Evergreen  cones  require  excessive  drying  before  they  will 
open  and  release  their  seeds.  The  fleshy  fruits  of  the  Mulberry, 
the  Cherry,  the  Hawthorn,  and  the  Plum,  require  macerating  in 
water  until  the  seeds  can  be  sep'arated  readily  from  the  pulp.  The 
shucks  of  Black  Walnuts,  Butternuts  and  Hickory  nuts  should  be 
removed  within  a  few  days  after  gathering.  The  most  import- 
ant point  to  be  observed  in  the  storing  of  seeds  of  any  kind  is  to  keep 
them  in  a  cool,  dry  place  to  prevent  germination  and  at  the  same 
time  avoid  excessive  drying. 

Testing  the  Vitality  of  Seeds — Some  seeds  will  remain 
viable  for  many  years  while  others  must  be  planted  within 
a  few  weeks  to  insure  a  good  growth.  Seedsmen  frequentlv  mix 
their  "left-over"  seed  with  their  fresh  stock  and  this  sometimes 
accounts  for  the  low  degree  of  germination  of  some  samples.  It  is 
well,  therefore,  to  test  a  sample  of  seed  before  buying  large  quan- 
tities. The  only  strictly  reliable  test  to  determine  the  vitality  of 
seeds  is  germination,  but  this  often  requires  many  days  or  weeks 
for  results.  With  a  little  experience  in  examining  fresh  and  stale 
seed,  one  may  expect  to  determine  fairly  accurately  whether  a  given 
sample  will  grow.  The  examination  consists  in  cutting  open  about 
fifty  seeds  of  a  sample  and  in  observing  whether  the  kernels  are  de- 
cayed, moldy,  abnormally  shrunken  or  completely  dried  out.  If  a 
large  percentage  of  those  examined  are  firm,  plump,  and  normally 
moist,  the  sample  probably  may  be  relied  upon.  The  seeds  of  some 
species,  like  the  Ashes  and  Locusts,  may  be  extremely  dry  and  yet 
be  reliable. 


uU  TREES  IN  WINTER 

The  seed  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  species  will  germinate 
within  ten  to  thirty  days  and  the  vitality  of  these  may  be  definitely 
determined  by  germination  tests.  A  definite  number  of  seeds  of 
any  sample  may  be  covered  with  sand  or  moss  at  a  depth  equivalent 
to  the  diameter  of  the  seed.  The  box  containing  the  sample  un- 
der test  should  be  kept  in  a  place  where  the  temperature  ranges 
from  60  degrees  to  70  degrees  F.,  and  the  soil  or  moss  kept  in  a 
moist  condition.  For  the  smaller  seeds  the  use  of  sand  will  give 
the  best  results  and  for  the  larger  kinds  either  moss  alone  or  a  mix- 
ture of  moss  and  sand  is  recommended. 

Planting  Seeds  —  Seed  beds  should  be  located  on  moder- 
ately light,  well-drained  soil.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  also  wxll 
to  locate  the  bed  on  the  north  or  east  side  of  a  building,  forest,  or 
other  windbreak.  A  common  and  convenient  width  for  seed  beds 
is  four  feet.  The  length  may  be  extended  according  to  the 
amount  of  seed  to  be  planted.  The  rows  run  crosswise  of  the  bed. 
In  very  large  plantations  it  is  usually  advisable  to  sow  the  seed 
in  long  rows  or  drills  clear  across  the  field,  in  much  the  same  way 
that  vegetable  seed  is  planted.  This  arrangement  admits  of  horse 
cultivation  and  lessens  the  hand  work. 

The  soil  should  be  well  prepared  by  previous  cultivation.  Its 
physical  and  chemical  condition  may  be  greatly  improved  by  tne 
addition  of  well  rotted  stable  manure.  Ground  that  has  been  un- 
der cultivation  for  at  least  one  year  is  not  so  likely  to  be  infested 
with  injurious  insects  and  will  give  better  results  than  newly  broken 
land. 

The  best  time  for  planting  most  species  is  early  spring.  Some 
species,  like  Red  and  Silver  Maple,  River  Birch,  Elms,  Poplars  and 
Willows,  mature  their  seeds  in  June  and  these  must  be  planted 
immediately,  but  most  species  are  carried  over  winter  and  planted 
as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  properly  worked.  If  the  soil  is  too  wet 
the  seeds  are  likely  to  rot,  while  if  it  is  too  dry  the  seeds  will  not 
germinate  until  late  in  the  season  and  may  possibly  remain  in  the 
ground  until  the  following  season. 

The  seed  of  the  species  that  make  a  small  growth  during  the 
first  season,  like  Conifers,  Birches,  Elms,  and  Sugar  Maple,  may 
be  planted  in  rows  about  eight  or  twelve  inches  apart.  It  is  some- 
times sown  broadcast  in  well  prepared  seed-beds  and  the  seedlings 
transplanted  in  nursery  rows  the  first  or  second  year  following.  The 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  51 

seed  of  the  rapid-growing  species,  like  the  Soft  Maples,  Hickories, 
Oaks,  Black  Walnut,  Butternut,  Ashes,  Elms,  Locusts  and  Catalpas, 
should  be  given  more  room  and  should  be  planted  in  rows  two  to 
three  feet  apart.  The  seeds  should  be  so  spaced  in  the  row  that 
the  seedlings  will  not  require  thinning.  Medium  sized  seeds  and 
those  that  have  tested  high  in  germination  may  be  planted  from 
one  to  two  inches  apart,  while  the  smaller  ones  and  those  that  have 
proven  to  be  low  in  vitality  should  be  spaced  somewhat  closer.  The 
larger  seeds  like  nuts  and  acorns  may  be  spaced  about  three  inches 
apart.  For  very  small  seeds  it  is  customary  to  use  a  board  on 
which  to  stand  and  thus  avoid  trampling  the  soil.  The  rows  in 
which  the  seed  is  to  be  planted  may  be  marked  off  by  running  a  hoe 
handle  along  the  edge  of  the  board. 

The  amount  of  covering  that  should  be  given  seeds  depends  upon 
their  size  and  upon  the  character  of  soil.  Large  seeds  should  be 
planted  deeper  than  smaller  kinds.  A  common  rule  is  to  cover  all 
seeds  about  three  or  four  times  their  own  depth.  On  light  soil,  and 
especially  during  dry  weather,  they  should  be  covered  more  deeply, 
while  on  heavy  soil  twice  their  own  depth  would  be  sufficient.  In 
order  to  bring  the  soil  moisture  up  to  the  level  of  the  seeds  and  to 
prevent  the  seed  from  being  washed  out  by  rain  it  is  well  to  roll  the 
ground  or  firm  it  by  walking  on  a  board  placed  along  the  row. 
The  loss  of  moisture  and  the  baking  of  the  surface  may  be  pre- 
vented by  scattering  chaff  on  the  seed  bed  after  planting. 

Care  of  Seedlings  —  The  young  seedlings  of  most  species 
will  require  shade  for  the  first  season  and  of  the  conifers  for 
the  first  two  seasons.  The  necessary  shade  may  sometimes  be 
supplied  by  the  use  of  evergreen  boughs,  but  the  common  practice 
is  to  use  frames  made  of  lath.  (See  hg.  28.)  The  latter  are  placed 
about  their  own  width  apart  and  nailed  on  end  strips  about  two 
inches  in  thickness  and  five  to  six  feet  in  length.  The  frames  are 
supported  eighteen  inches  above  ground  for  conifers,  and  from  two 
to  three  feet  for  other  seedlings.  The  screens  are  removed  only 
on  cloudy  days  and  during  gentle  rains.  When  the  soil  is  suffi- 
ciently moist  the  frames  serve  a  useful  purpose  by  shedding  part 
of  the  water  that  falls.  With  broad  leaved  seedlings  it  is  usually 
unnecessary  to  keep  the  shades  on  after  the  first  of  August. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  water  seedlings  the  water  should  be 
applied  gently,  allowing  it  to  soak  in.     When  good  cultivation  is 


52 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


supplied  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  apply  water.  The  cultivation 
should  be  so  frequent  and  thorough  that  no  weeds  will  develop  and 
that  a  loose  soil  mulch  will  be  maintained  on  the  surface. 

Transplanting  —  Most  trees  are  large  enough  to  be  taken 
from  the  seed  bed  after  one  year's  growth.  Conifers  and  a  few 
other  species  make  a  very  slow  growth  and  should  be  left  in  the 
seed  bed  for  tw^o  years.  The  seedlings  of  some  of  the  most  rapid- 
growing  species  are  occasionally  planted  in  their  permanent  loca- 
tions at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  trans- 
plant them  in  the  nursery  for  at  least  one  season.      The  transplant- 


Fig.  23.     A  one-year-old  Cedar  cutting. 


ing  is  usually  done  in  the  spring,  from  the  first  of  April  till  the 
middle  of  May.  The  length  of  time  that  they  remain  in  the  nur- 
sery depends  upon  the  growth  and  this  is  largely  influenced  by  the 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  53 

character  of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  treatment.  In  the  moving  of 
young  trees  from  one  position  to  another^  great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  preventing  the  roots  from  drying  out.  This  precaution 
is  especially  necessary  in  the  handling  of  conifers. 

PROPAGATION  BY  CUTTINGS 

It  is  a  common  thing  to  find  willow  twigs  that  have  fallen  from 
trees  and  taken  root.  The  branches  of  some  species  of  willow  are 
so  brittle  that  they  are  broken  off  by  the  wind.  Some  of  these  fall 
in  the  water  and  are  carried  down  stream  for  many  miles  and  are 
finally  washed  ashore^,  where  they  find  conditions  favorable  for 
rooting. 

From  nature,  therefore,  man  has  learned  that  trees  may  be 
propagated  by  cuttings.  Most  woody  plants  when  given  proper 
conditions  may  be  propagated  in  this  way.  Species  differ  greatly 
in  respect  to  their  amenability  to  this  method  of  propagation. 
Poplars  and  Willows  are  very  easily  propagated  from  cuttings,  and 
the  desired  result  often  may  be  attained  more  readily  by  this  means 
than  by  the  collecting  and  planting  of  seed.  Some  species,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  quite  difficult  to  propagate  in  this  way,  and  with 
such  the  practice  is  to  grow  them  from  seed.  The  chief  advan- 
tage in  propagation  by  cuttings  is  the  saving  of  time.  Many  trees 
started  from  cuttings  are  large  enough  at  the  end  of  the  second 
or  third  season  for  planting  in  their  pennanent  positions  on  lawns 
or  along  roadsides.  Furthermore,  there  are  many  horticultural  va- 
rieties, like  the  wee23ing  forms,  that  do  not  come  true  from  seed 
and  these  must  be  propagated  either  from  cuttings  or  grafted  on 
seedlings  of  the  same  or  some  closely-related  species. 

Mahing  Cuttings  —  Cuttings  from  woody  plants  are  usually 
gathered  in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter.  There  are  three  distinct 
kinds  employed  in  the  propagation  of  trees,  namely:  simple,  heel, 
and  mallet.     (See  fig.  24). 

The  simple  cutting  is  employed  generally  with  such  trees  as  the 
Willow  and  Poplar.  It  consists  of  a  straight  portion  of  a  shoot 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  nearly  uniform  in  size 
throughout,  and  containing  tw^o  or  more  buds.  At  the  lower  end 
it  is  usually  cut  off  just  below  a  bud,  because  roots  develop  more 
readily  at  the  joints.  Some  species,  like  the  Apple,  Pear,  Plum, 
Cherry,  Hawthorn,  Mountain  Ash,  Elm  and  Ailanthus,  are  more 


54 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


easily  propagated  from  root  cuttings  than  from  cuttings  taken 
from  above  ground.  These  are  also  of  a  simple  type  and  are 
obtained  from  young  trees  that  have  been  grown  from  seeds.    The 


Fig.   24.     Hard   wood   cutting-s.     A   simple   cutting-  on   the   left;   a  heal 
cutting  in  the  center  and  a  mallet  cutting-   on  the  right. 


root  from  one  of  these  trees  may  often  be  divided  into  from  three 
to  twelve  pieces. 

Heel  cuttings  are  made  by  severing  twigs  close  to  their  bases  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  carry  with  them  portions  of  the  parent 
branchy  forming  the  so-called  heel.  Heel  cuttings  are  usually 
not  more  than  six  inches  in  length  and  are  frequently  used  for 
the  propagation  of  spruces  and  firs. 

Mallet  cuttings  are  made  by  severing  the  parent  branch 
above  and  below  a  short  side-branch  so  as  to  leave  a  mallet-like 
piece  of  the  former  at  the  base  of  the  latter.  They  are  usually 
from  five  to  eight  inches  in  length  and  are  commonly  used  in  the 
propagation  of  Junipers  and  Arbor  Vitaes. 

Setting  Cuttings  —  The  various  kinds  of  cuttings  are  handled 
in  much  the  same  way.  After  being  cut  they  are  usually 
tied  in  bundles  of  fifty,  or  more,  with  all  the  tops  pointing  in  the 
same   direction.     The   bundles   are   packed   in    sand   or   soil   and 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES.  55 

either  buried  on  the  north  side  of  a  building  or  stored  in  a  cool 
cellar  until  spring,  when  they  are  ready  for  planting.  During  the 
winter  the  lower  ends  of  the  cuttings  should  become  callused. 
Call  using  is  the  first  step  toward  root  fonnation.  The  cuttings 
are  planted  usually  in  rows  eighteen  to  thirty-six  inches  apart  and 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  They  are  2)laced  in  the  ground 
either  on  the  slant  or  in  a  vertical  |)osition  and  set  so  that  one  or 
two  buds  remain  above  the.  surface.  The  soil  always  should  be 
packed  finnly  about  the  cuttings.  The  after  treatment  is  about 
the  same  as  for  seedlings. 

PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTAGE 

According  to  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  "Graftage  com- 
prises the  process  and  operation  of  inserting  a  part  of  one  plant  into 
another,  with  the  intention  that  the  part  shall  grow  on  the  foster 
root,  together  with  all  the  questions  which  arise  in  relation  to  the 
practice."  It  is  a  comprehensive  term,  embracing  all  questions 
relating  to  the  operations  of  both  grafting  and  budding. 

This  method  of  propagation  is  employed  when  it  is  necessary  to 
perpetuate  varieties  that  do  not  come  true  from  seed,  as  is  the  case 
with  all  varieties  of  our  cultivated  fruit  trees,  like  apples,  pears, 
plums,  cherries,  peaches,  lemons  and  oranges,  and  with  many  hor- 
ticultural varieties  of  ornamental  trees.  It  is  employed  also  with 
trees  that  do  not  bear  seeds  freely  and  with  those  whose  seeds 
are  difficult  to  germinate  and  that  do  not  propagate  well  by  cuttings. 
The  practice  is  also  useful  in  dwarfing  tall-growing  species ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  standard  pear  is  made  dwarf  by  grafting  it  upon  the 
quince.  Furthermore  the  practice  may  be  useful  in  adapting  cer- 
tain kinds  of  trees  to  adverse  conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  For 
example  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  growing  the  plum  on  light 
soil,  it  is  sometimes  grafted  on  the  peach,  which  is  better  adapt- 
ed to  sandy  soil. 

As  a  rule,  grafting  must  be  done  with  plants  of  close  relation- 
ship, but  frequently  success  follows  grafting  of  one  species  on  an- 
other, as  in  the  case  of  plums,  and  occasionally  of  one  genus  or 
another,  as  is  the  case  of  the  pear  and  quince.  It  is  not  enough, 
however,  that  the  graft  should  unite,  but  it  should  form  a  good 
union  that  is  not  likely  to  be  parted  by  wind  storms  or  by  heavy 
loads  of  fruit.  The  limits  within  which  grafting  can  succeed, 
therefore,  are  to  be  determined  only  by  experiment. 


56  TEEES  IN"  WINTER 

Grafting  —  There  are  many  methods  of  grafting,  differing 
mainly  in  the  position  of  the  union  and  in  the  method  with  which 
the  scion  and  stock  are  joined.  Space  here  will  permit  only  of  a 
discussion  of  general  principles  and  for  the  technique  of  the  va- 
rious methods  the  reader  is  referred  to  Bailey's  N"ursery  Book. 

That  portion  of  a  plant  that  is  mechanically  inserted  upon  an- 
other plant  with  the  expectation  that  it  shall  grow,  is  called  the 
scion.  The  plant  or  the  part  of  a  plant  upon  Avhich  the  scion  is  set 
is  called  the  stock.  The  most  important  point  in  the  whole 
operation  of  grafting  is  the  necessity  for  inserting  the  scion  in 
such  a  way  that  its  cambium  layer  or  inner  bark  will  come  in  close 
contact  with  that  of  the  stock.  When  this  condition  is  fulfilled 
all  that  remains  is  to  prevent  the  access  of  moisture  and  disease 
spores  and  to  prevent  the  parts  from  drying  out  before  union  is 
affected.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  grafting  wax  which' 
may  be  purchased  at  small  cost  or  made  of  the  following:  resin, 
4  parts;  beeswax,  2  parts;  tallow  or  linseed  oil,  1  part  (by  weight). 
The  resin  and  beeswax  are  broken  finely  and  melted  together  with 
the  tallow.  When  thoroughly  melted  the  mixture  should  be 
poured  into  a  pail  of  cold  w^ater  and  left  there  till  it  becomes  just 
hard  enough  to  handle,  when  it  should  be  taken  out  and  pulled  like 
taffy  until  it  becomes  light  brown  or  fawn  in  color.  In  the  pull- 
ing and  subsequent  handling  the  hands  should  be  well  greased  to 
prevent  sticking.  If  the  wax  hardens  before  the  time  for  using,  it 
must  be  slightly  warmed  and  softened  so  that  it  may  be  applied  ex- 
peditiously and  effectively. 

Scions  for  grafting  are  usually  collected  in  N'ovember,  just  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen,  but  they  may  be  collected  any  time  during 
the  dormant  season.  The  scions  are  tied  in  bundles,  packed  in 
moist  sand  or  soil  and  stored  in  a  cool  place  in  the  same  way  as 
described  for  cuttings. 

Cleft  Grafting  is  the  method  commonly  employed  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  change  the  variety  of  mature  fruit  trees.  The  process  in 
brief  is  described  here  and  will  serve  to  illustrate  more  clearly  the 
essential  features  of  all  grafting  methods. 

A  branch,  usually  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter  is  sawed  off 
squarely  and  smoothly.  The  stub  is  split  down  through  the  center 
to  a  distance  of  about  two  or  three  inches.  For  this  purpose  a 
special  kind  of  knife  is  used  and  a  mallet  is  often  used  to  drive  the 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


57 


knife  into  the  stock.  The  knife  is  equipped  with  a  short  wedge 
on  the  back  of  the  extreme  end  of  the  blade.  This  wedge  is  used 
to  hold  the  slit  open  while  the  scion  is  adjusted.  The  slit  may  be 
widened  by  simply  pressing  on  the  knife  handle  and  after  the 


Fig.  25.     A  Cleft  Graft,  before  and  after  waxing. 


Fig.   26,     A    scion 
for   cleft-grafting. 


scion  has  been  placed  the  pressure  on  the  handle  may  be  relieved 
and  the  w^dge  withdrawn.  The  pressure  of  the  stock  should  be 
sufficient  to  hold  the  scion  in  position.  (See  fig.   25.) 

The  scion  is  cut  in  a  sloping  fashion  at  the  base,  or  in  the  form 
of  a  very  thin  wedge.  The  sloping  part  should  be  thicker  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other.  The  shaping  is  usually  done  so  that  the 
lowest  bud  will  come  on  the  thicker  side  and  at  a  point  about 
opposite  the  upper  part  of  the  wedge.  The  upper  j^art  is  cut  off 
squarely  and  at  a  point  slightly  above  the  third  bud.  (See  fig.  26). 
If  scion  wood  is  scarce  two  buds  are  sufficient  to  each  scion. 
The  scion  is  adjusted  so  that  the  inner  bark  on  the  thicker  side 
comes  in  contact  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock.  The  lower  bud 
comes  about  level  or  just  below  the  surface  of  the  stock  and  is 
usually  covered  in  the  waxing  process.  The  task  is  completed  by 
covering  with  wax  all  exposed  cut  surfaces. 

It  is  customary,  with  branches  that  are  large  enough,  to  insert 
two  scions.  They  should  be  set  so  that  their  thicker  margins 
will  be  on  the  outer  side  of  the  stock.  The  second  graft  affords 
a  double  chance  for  success  and  it  assists  in  healing  up  the  wound. 


58 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


If  both  scions  grow,  the  weaker  one,  about  midsummer,  is  sawed 
off  in  a  sloping  fashion,  taking  with  it  part  of  the  stock. 
When  the  scion  and  stock  are  about  equal  in  diameter,  as  is 
usually  the  case  in  root  grafting,  the  process  known  as  whip  grafting 
is  usually  employed.    Figure  27  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  process. 


Fig.   27.     A   root-graft. 


Fig.  28.     A  "stick"  of  buds. 


Budding  —  The  practice  of  budding  has  become  a  more  common 
means  of  perpetuating  varieties  than  that  of  grafting.  It  is 
habitually  employed  on  the  trees  of  most  stone  fruits  and  fre- 
quently on  those  of  apples  and  pears.  The  operation  is  simple 
and  consists  of  inserting  a  single  detached  bud  under  the  bark  of 
the  stock.  In  the  hands  of  experts  it  can  be  done  with  great 
speed.  The  usual  plan  is  for  a  man  to  set  the  buds  and  a  boy  to 
follow  closely  and  do  the  tying.  The  practice  is  employed  chiefly 
on  stocks  of  small  diameter  and  preferably  on  those  not  more  than 
one  year  old. 

The  work  is  done  whenever  the  bark  will  peel  readily,  which 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


59 


is  (either  in  early  spring  or  late -summer.     As  commonly  practiced 
the  work  is  done  in  August  or  early  September. 

When  everything  is  in  readiness  the  buds  are  at  once  taken  from 
a  tree  of  the  desired  variety.  Long  shoots  of  the  past  season's 
growth  are  collected  for  spring  budding  and  of  the  present  season's 
growth  for  summer  budding.  If  the  shoots  are  collected  in  the 
summer  the  leaves  will  be  on,  but  these  should  be  cut  off  promptly, 
leaving  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  leaf-stalk  to  serve  as  a 
handle  to  the  bud.  This  shoot  is  called  a  "stick  of  buds."  (See 
fig.  28).  Each  stick  contains  several  buds,  al  of  which  are  cut, 
but  not  severed,  before  any  of  them  are  inserted.  The  cutting 
consists  in  taking  a  slice  out  of  the  bark  about  an  inch  in  length 
and  extending  above  and  below  the  bud.  A  small  amount  of  the 
wood  from  just  beneath  the  bud  is  likely  to  be  taken,  and  this  may 
either  be  removed  or  left.  When  finally  severed  by  making  a 
straight  cut  across  the  top,  the  result  will  be  a  shield-shaped 
piece  of  bark  with  a  bud  in  the  center.  A  sharp  thin-bladed  knife 
is  necessary  for  clean  and  rapid  work. 


Fig-.   29.      The  three  stages   in  the  process  of  shield-budding". 


Before  inserting  the  buds  the  leaves  are  removed  from  that 
portion  of  the  stock  where  the  operation  is  performed.  A  T-shaped 
incision  is  made  and,  if  the  bark  peels  nicely,  the  bud  may  be 
pushed  down  under  the  bark  until  its  abrupt  top  fits  snugly 
against  the  transverse  part  of  the  T.  The  operation  is  completed 
by  tying  with  rafia  or  some  kind  of  soft  cord.  The  tying  material 
is  usually  cut  in  suitable  lengths  of  about  one  foot.  It  should 
not  be  wound  over  the  bud  itself.     (See  fig.  29). 

Budding  is  usually  done  on  seedlings  and  at  a  point  very  near 
the  ground.     With  larger  trees  the  various  branches   should  be 


60  TREES  IN  WINTER 

budded  at  positions  somewhere  near  their  junction  with  the  li^ain 
stem. 

In  about  two  or  three  weeks  the  bud  will  have  "stuck"  or  united 
to  the  stock.  The  bandage  then  should  be  cut  to  allow  for  the 
growth  of  the  stem.  The  summer-set  bud  should  remain  perfectly 
dormant  until  the  following  spring  when  the  stock  should  be  cut 
off  just  above  the  bud.  This  will  throw  the  entire  force  of  the 
plant  into  the  shoot  that  will  spring  from  the  bud.  Sometimes 
a  growth  of  three  or  four  feet  will  be  made  the  first  season  and 
the  following  spring  the  tree  may  be  set  out  in  its  permanent 
location. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  61 


CHAPTER  III 
TEEE  PLANTING  IN  RURAL  DISTRICTS. 

.       THE  CONSERVATION  OF  GOOD  SCENERY. 

Every  citizen  in  every  country  is  interested,  or  should  be  inter- 
ested, in  good  scenery.  Of  the  various  elements  that  constitute 
good  scenery  or  that  go  to  make  up  our  landscape  there  are  none  so 
ornamental  nor  so  indispensable  as  trees.  During  the  early  settle- 
ment and  development  of  the  country  the  problem  was  to  get  rid 
of  the  trees  and  undoubtedly  there  was  a  great  waste  of  timber. 
The  necessarily  wasteful  methods  of  the  early  settlers  were  handed 
down  to  the  later  generations  and  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
forests  was  thoughtlessly  continued  until  about  fifty  years  ago.  At 
this  time  we  first  began  to  realize  that  for  the  benefit  of  the 
coming  generation  and  for  the  future  prosperity  of  the  country, 
something  must  be  done  to  stop  or  mitigate  the  unnecessary  waste. 

The  problem  of  today  then  is  much  different  from  that  of  the 
early  days  and  we  hear  a  great  deal  now  about  the  conservation  of 
forests  and  the  necessity  for  planting  trees.  It  is  an  important 
problem  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  almost  equally 
important  from  the  standpoint  of  esthetics.  This  country  is  noted 
for  its  fine  scenery  and  our  beautiful  landscape  is  regarded  by 
foreigners  as  one  of  the  country's  greatest  assets.  Undoubtedly 
there  are  many  sections  of  the  country  that  are  worth  more  for 
the  scenery  they  possess  than  for  agriculture  or  forestry.  In  dis- 
cussions relating  to  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources, 
therefore,  the  element  of  good  scenery  should  always  be  considered. 
Since  good  forests,  good  farms,  and  good  waterways  contribute 
largely  to  the  landscape,  the  element  of  good  scenery  cannot  easily 
be  separated  from  many  of  the  commonly  recognized  natural 
resources. 

Trees  have  become  so  much  a  part  of  our  civilization  that  it 
would  seem  almost  impossible  to  get  along  without  them.  What 
would  our  homes,  our  country  roads,  our  city  streets,  our  parks, 
and  our  landscape  be  without  them?  We  all  know  that  trees  are 
beautiful  and  even  necessary  in  such  places,  but  we  cannot  fully 
appreciate  their  value  till  we  have  seen  the  desert.     The  settlers 


62  TREES  IN  WINTER 

in  the  prairie  section  of  the  West  have  many  times  declared  that 
the  longing  to  see  the  trees  and  the  hills  of  New  England  caused 
more  distress  than  the  desire  to  see  old  friends  and  relatives. 

The  value  of  trees  from  the  economic  or  commercial  stand- 
point is  well  understood  and  can  be  estimated  on  the  basis  of  dollars 
and  cents.  Their  esthetic  value  and  their  value  from  the  stand- 
point of  health  is  not  so  generally  appreciated  nor  is  it  so  amenable 
to  calculation.  We  hear  a  great  deal  these  days  about  surveys — 
forest  surveys,  agricultural  surveys,  and  the  like.  A  survey  in 
this  sense  means  an  inventory  or  a  stock-taking.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  make  a  survey  based  upon  the  landscape  wealth  of 
any  section  or  of  the  whole  country.  It  would  be  interesting  also 
to  compare  in  such  a  survey  the  relative  value  of  the  various 
elements  of  the  landscape.  It  seems  safe  to  predict  that  in  most 
sections  trees  would  be  credited  with  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  total  wealth. 

A  NATIONAL  PARK  SYSTEM 

There  is  a  tendency  nowadays  on  the  part  of  the  cities  to  extend 
their  park  systems  far  into  the  country.  In  Massachusetts  a  reser- 
vation scheme  known  as  the  Metropolitan  Park  System,  embracing 
the  whole  state  is  well  under  way.  Immense  tracts  of  land 
possessing  admirable  landscape  features  have  been  acquired  and 
improved.  Eoads  and  boulevards,  connecting  the  various  holdings 
with  one  another  and  with  the  Boston  Park  System  have  been 
constructed.  The  trees  have  been  protected  from  injury  and  many 
new  plantings  have  been  made.  The  aim  of  the  whole  scheme  is 
to  preserve  the  natural  scenery  and  to  make  it  accessible  to  the 
appreciative  people  of  the  commonwealth.  The  project  does  not 
interfere  with  the  utilization  of  the  surrounding  land  for  agri- 
cultural purposes.  It  has  had  a  marked  influence  upon  land  values 
and  has  developed  among  the  people  a  local  patriotism  and  a 
greater  appreciation  for  natural  scenery. 

The  movement  in  Massachusetts  is  sure  to  exert  a  wide  influence. 
At  the  present  time  there  is  a  movement  on  foot  that  will  connect 
Montreal  and  New  York  by  the  use  of  a  great  scenic  boulevard. 
Other  states  and  districts  are  bound  to  see  the  wisdom  of  such  a 
policy  and  to  enact  similar  laws  for  the  conservation  of  natural 
scenery.     The  next  step  should  bring  together  the  park  reserva- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  63 

tions  of  the  various  states  and  the  ultimate  result  should  be  what 
may  be  called  a  national  park  system.  Such  a  system  would  unite 
the  great  natural  wonders  of  America,  with  Niagara  Falls  as  the 
central  figure.  Among  the  hundreds  of  special  features  of  this 
great  national  park  may  be  mentioned  the  gigantic  forests  of 
California,  Yellow  Stone  geysers  of  Wyoming,  the  Grand  canon 
of  Colorado,  the  wheat  fields  of  Kansas,  the  Mammoth  Cave  of 
Kentucky,  the  vineyards  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  the 
Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  the  famous  elms  and  peach  orchards 
of  Connecticut,  the  apple  orchards  of  Virginia,  and  the  palm 
groves  of  Florida.  The  railway  companies  must  necessarily  take  an 
active  part  in  such  a  movement,  and  many  of  them  have  already 
made  a  start  in  this  direction.  The  traveling  public  has  done 
much  to  encourage  development  in  this  respect  and  can  do  much 
more  by  patronizing  the  companies  that  offer  the  most  attractive 
routes. 

The  Sign-Boards  Must  Go  —  There  will  be  no  place  in  the 
great  national  park  system  for  the  hideous  sign-board  so  commonly 
found  along  railway  lines  and  public  highways.  This  method 
of  advertising  should  be  discouraged.  How  to  get  rid  of  this 
objectionable  feature  of  the  landscape  seems  like  a  difficult  problem, 
but  it  is  believed  that  the  offenders  will  eventually  realize  the 
advisability  of  protecting  the  welfare  of  the  public.  There  is  a 
growing  sentiment  in  opposition  to  the  sign-board  nuisance.  Many 
people,  by  their  refusal  to  use  any  of  the  products  that  they  know 
to  be  advertised  in  this  way,  have  asserted  their  feelings  in  a 
most  effective  manner.  If  their  children  should  "cry  for  Castoria" 
they  will  endeavor  to  soothe  them  with  some  brand  that  has  been 
advertised  in  a  more  legitimate  fashion. 

Arousing  Interest  —  The  greatest  progress  and  the  most  en- 
during results  in  any  direction  must  come  through  education. 
We  hear  a  great  deal  in  these  days  about  the  necessity  for  some 
kind  of  instruction  that  will  fit  the  child  to  his  environment. 
The  study  of  the  landscape,  of  which  trees  form  the  chief  element, 
will  go  a  long  way  toward  developing  in  the  child  a  love  for  the 
beautiful  and  eventually  bring  him  in  harmony  with  his  surround- 
ings. It  seems  advisable,  therefore,  that  a  campaign  for  the 
conservation  and  improvement  of  rural  scenery  should  start  with 
the  schools. 


64  TREES  IN  WINTER 

yillage  improvement  societies^  of  whicli  there  are  a  great  many, 
are  doing  a  splendid  Avork  by  way  of  stimulating  greater  effort 
among  projDerty  holders  and  municipal  officials.  Their  influence, 
however,  is  too  often  restricted  to  the  limits  of  their  own  little 
village  and  their  attitude  toward  neighboring  villages  too  often 
savors  of  rivalry.  If  every  organization  of  this  sort  should  reach 
out  and  co-operate  with  similar  organizations  in  neighboring 
villages  the  result  would  be  almost  beyond  comprehension.  The 
influence  of  such  organizations  should  also  be  felt  on  the  surround- 
ing farms,  and  farmers  should  be  encouraged  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  movement.  Many  of  the  more  thickly  populated 
rural  sections  should  have  societies  of  their  own.  Since  well- 
kept  farms  contribute  largely  to  the  general  appearance  of  the 
country,  prizes  are  sometimes  offered  either  by  the  state  or  by 
some  agricultural  association  for  the  best  kept  farms.  This 
practice  sometimes  results  in  better  farms,  but  the  principle  is 
all  wrong.  When  farmers  get  the  proper  spirit  they  will  improve 
their  farms  for  the  added  pleasure  and  profit  to  be  derived. 

The  granges,  farmers'  clubs,  women's  clubs,  and  the  various 
organizations  connected  with  the  church,  may  all  share  in  the 
movement  for  better  scenery  in  the  country.  Every  section  has  its 
own  special  scenery  and  it  should  be  the  business  of  some  organi- 
zation to  protect  it.  If  there  is  no  organization  in  the  community 
that  may  be  intrusted  with  the  responsibility,  one  should  be  formed 
for  this  express  purpose. 

THE  PROBLEM  OP  THE  COUNTRY  ROADS- 

The  Location  of  Country  Roads  —  The  country  road  primarily 
is  for  the  purpose  of  communication  and  transportation.  The 
first  consideration,  therefore,  should  be  efficiency.  Many  of  the 
country  roads  to  reach  their  maximum  of  efficiency  should  not  only 
be  rebuilt,  but  should  be  relocated.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  hilly 
sections  so  many  roads  follow  the  shortest  route,  like  the  Indian 
trails,  rather  than  the  natural  contours  of  the  land.  Eoads  that 
follow  the  valleys  and  the  streams  are  usually  more  efficient  and 
decidedly  more  picturesque.  AVhere  the  streams  are  tortuous,  of 
course,  it  is  possible  to  overdo  such  an  undertaking.  In  flat 
countries,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  waste  of  time  in 
following   the    straight    concession   and    crossroad   routes.      Some 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  65 

cities  have  realized  the  necessity  for  abandoning  this  rectangular 
or  checkerboard  arrangement  of  streets  and  are  now  planning  some 
diagonal  routes  between  important  points.  Road  builders  should 
keep  in  mind  that  often  there  is  a  saving  of  almost  a  third  of 
the  distance  between  two  points  by  traveling  in  a  direct  line. 
Farmers  who  live  in  a  checkerboard  section  would  be  astonished 
if  they  should  figure  out  the  waste  involved  in  traveling  over 
indirect  routes  for  a  period  of  ten  or  twenty  years.  Some  farmers 
would  find  that  during  their  lives  they  have  traveled  thousands  of 
unnecessary  miles.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter,  however,  to  change 
the  location  of  a  road  and  usually  we  must  take  them  as  we  find 
them. 

Although  somewhat  foreign  to  the  subject  under  discussion,  it 
seems  advisable  to  digress  just  long  enough  to  make  a  suggestion 
for  the  improvement  of  country  road-beds  in  sections  where  stones 
are  abundanl.  There  are  many  such  locations  where  the  farmers 
could  build  permanent  roads  in  front  of  their  farms  by  using  the 
stone  from  their  fields  instead  of  piling  up  huge  walls  that  not 
only  occupy  valuable  space  but  furnish  the  best  protection  for 
injurious  insects  and  obnoxious  creatures  of  various  kinds.  On 
some  farms  the  non-productive  area  on  account  of  stone  walls 
often  amounts  to  one-fifth  of  the  total  acreage.  It  would  seem 
like  a  feasible  thing  for  the  farmers  in  a  certain  community  to 
"get  together"  on  a  road  improvement  proposition  of  this  kind. 
The  removal  of  the  stone  walls  could  be  accomplished  during  the 
winter  months  and  most  of  the  work  done  during  slack  seasons. 
Some  communities  undoubtedly  could  afford  to  invest  in  a  stone 
crusher  with  which  to  -grind  stone  for  dressing  their  roads.  If 
nothing  but  the  native  soil  is  used  on  top  of  the  rocks  the  result 
will  be  quite  satisfactory,  for,  on  account  of  the  drainage  afforded 
by  the  stone  foundation,  such  roads  dry  out  quickly  in  wet  seasons. 
For  economic  reasons  alone,  the  ridding  of  the  farm  of  the  scat- 
tered and  piled  stones  would  be  worth  while.  Furthermore,  im- 
proved roads  in  any  community  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation 
and  tend  to  increase  land  values. 

Mailing  the  Best  Use  of  Existing  Conditions  —  In  many  sections 
of  the  East  the  problem  is  to  keep  down  the  brush  along 
the  roadside.  The  custom  in  such  places  is  to  periodically 
mow  and  burn  ever3^thing  within  the  highway  limits.     An  able- 


66  TREES  IN  WINTER 

bodied  man^  armed  with  a  brush  scythe,  is  capable  of  destroying 
more  good  scenery  within  a  few  weeks  than  can  be  developed  on 
the  same  area  within  several  years.  Much  of  this,  of  course,  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  road  clear,  but  it  seems  strange  that 
country  and  town  officials  implicated  in  such  wholesale  destruction 
cannot  see  the  folly  of  this  practice.  If  it  should  become  necessary 
to  widen  the  thoroughfare  it  would  seem  unnecessary  to  have  the 
cutting  extend  clear  to  the  limits.  By  leaving  a  strip  along  the 
fences,  with  occasional  interruptions  for  a  more  extended  view, 
the  effect  would  be  decidedly  more  pleasing.  Within  a  few  years 
the  larger-growing  species  may  be  expected  to  arch  over  the  road 
in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  shelter  from  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun 
during  the  summer  and  cold  winds  of  the  winter. 

A  still  better  plan  would  be  to  retain  only  a  few  of  the  largest 
and  most  desirable  specimens  to  furni^  the  needed  protection 
and  to  contribute  to  the  beauty  of  the  wayside  scenery.  More 
trees  may  be  reserved  than  will  ultimately  be  required,  but  some 
of  them  should  be  cut  out  as  soon  as  the  trees  begin  to  crowd.  No 
attempt  should  be  made  to  select  trees  that  are  in  line,  but  it  is 
well  to  choose  only  those  that  are  at  some  distance  from  the  road 
bed.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  well  to  restrict  the  selection  in  a 
certain  stretch  of  road  to  one  or  two  species,  but  it  is  better  to 
have  a  great  variety  of  species  than  to  have  none  at  all.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  well  to  select  long-lived  species,  like  the  Oak,  some 
of  the  Maples,  the  Hickories,  the  White  Elm,  the  Chestnut,  the 
White  Pine,  the  Linden,  the  White  Ash,  the  Tulip,  the  Sycamore, 
and  others.  The  brush  around  the  selected  trees  will  need  to  be 
kept  cut  for  ten  or  fifteen  years,  but  after  that  it  is  not  likely  to 
make  much  headway  in  the  shade  of  the  larger  trees,  as  may  be 
seen  along  country  roads  that  pass  through  the  forest.  By  allow- 
ing some  of  the  trees  to  develop,  therefore,  the  municipality  is 
eventually  relieved  of  the  necessity  for  annually  or  bienially  mowing 
the  brush  along  the  roadside. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  when  traveling  through  rural 
communities  to  find  men  engaged  in  cutting  down  fine  road- 
side trees.  There  are  various  reasons  given  for  such  action  and 
on  investigation  it  is  often  found  to  be  petty  grafting  on  the  part 
of  one  or  more  of  the  town  officials.  Occasionally  the  men  who 
are  found  doing  the  work  will  excuse  themselves  on  the  ground 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


67 


that  in  wet  weather  the  trees  prevent  the  road  from  drying  out. 
Such  an  argument  carries  little  weight,  for  expert  road  builders 
claim  that  on  account  of  the  roots  holding  the  soil  in  place  it  is  an 
advantage  to  have  trees  along  the  roadside.  Other  offenders  will 
say  that  they  get  the  wood  as  their  remuneration  for  the  work 


Fig-.   30.     A  country   road  through   a  White  Pine   grove,   50  years   old, 
at  Windsor,  Connecticwt. 


68  TREES  IN  WINTER 

of  cutting  the  brush.  On  the  whole,  the  apparent  inexcusable 
destruction  of  roadside  trees  is  largely  the  result  of  ignorance. 
Until  the  town  or  county  officials  in  rural  communities  come  to 
realize  the  real  value  of  trees,  or  until  public  sentiment  becomes 
much  keener  than  at  present,  this  shameful  practice  is  likely  to 
continue. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  farmer's  woodlot  is  so  often  located 
at  the  rear  of  the  farm,  instead  of  along  the  roadside.  Everyone 
appreciates  the  short  stretches  of  wooded  road  in  the  country  and 
it  is  hoped  that  the  few  remaining  roadside  forests  will  not  be 
disturbed  for  many  years.  If  it  should  be  necessary  to  remove 
them  at  some  time  it  is  further  hoped  that  the  owners  will  see 
the  wisdom  of  leaving  a  strip  of  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet 
along  the  roadside.  This  strip  would  make  an  excellent  i^lace  for 
the  farm  woodlot,  and  for  the  practice  of  modern  methods  of 
forest  management. 

Roadside  Planting  —  In  most  places  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
for  the  absence  of  trees  along  the  country  roadside.  When  we 
consider  how  easily  trees  may  be  obtained  and  how  little  trouble 
and  expense  tree  planting  envolves  we  wonder  why  we  should  not 
have  them  along  all  country  roads.  Suitable  trees  usually  may  be 
obtained  in  neighboring  forests  without  expense.  If  each  farmer 
would  occasionally  spend  a  few  hours  in  the  planting  of  trees,  it 
would  not  be  long  before  the  desired  result  would  be  attained. 
While  the  planting  of  a  row  of  trees  along  the  front  of  a  farm 
may  greatly  enhance  its  value,  the  result  is  largely  a  public  benefit 
and  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  community  as  sidewalks  and 
improved  roads.  For  this  reason  it  would  be  worth  while  for 
every  country  town  to  take  up  the  work  of  roadside  planting. 

It  is  always  well  to  select  species  that  are  common  to  the 
neighborhood.  Exotic  forms  when  found  in  the  country  seem  out 
of  place  and  are  not  recommended  for  roadside  planting.  For  the 
sake  of  uniformity  it  is  well  to  plant  only  one  species  on  a  single 
stretch  of  road.  With  a  view  to  securing  early  results,  trees  of 
a  rapid  growing  species  are  sometimes  planted  alternately  with 
the  permanent  trees.  This  practice  is  always  attended  with  the 
danger  of  leaving  the  temporary  trees  so  long  that  they  are 
likely  to  affect  the  permanent  planting.     In  order  that  trees  may 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  69 

bIiow  lip  at  their  best  they  must  have  plenty  of  room  for  develop- 
ment. 

In  the  selection  of  species  for  roadside  planting  it  is  well  to 
avoid  forms  that  are  especially  susceptible  to  injury  from  insects 
and  diseases.  The  Elm  in  many  respects  is  admirably  suited  to 
roadside  planting,  but  on  account  of  its  susceptibility  to  injury 
from  the  leaf  beetle  it  is  not  generally  recommended.  x4t  the 
present  time  it  would  be  unwise  to  plant  the  common  Chestnut 
in  the  northeastern  states  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
chestnut  bark  disease,  for  which  no  remedy  has  yet  been  devised. 

Those  who  have  traveled  through  the  Niagara  district  of 
Ontario  or  the  Annapolis  valley  in  Xova  Scotia  have  been  surprised 
at  the  splendid  effects  obtained  from  the  planting  of  fruit  trees 
along  the  roadside.  There  is  great  economy  in  this  practice,  but 
fruit  trees  as  commercially  grown  do  not  offer  sufficient  protection 
from  sun  and  wind.  The  sweet  cherry  is  probably  one  of  the 
best  kinds  of  fruit  trees  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  large-growing 
tree  and  is  useful  in  attracting  the  birds.  Farmers  can  w^ll 
afford  to  grow  some  fruit  especially  for  this  purpose.  The  birds, 
in  rendering  useful  service,  more  than  pay  for  the  fruit  they  eat. 
In  some  sections  of  Europe  the  municipal  authorities  are  accus- 
tomed to  plant  fruit  trees  along  the  public  highways  for  the  sake 
of  ornament  and  economy.  The  common  custom  being  to  offer 
the  fruit  for  sale  on  the  trees  and  to  sell  it  to  the  highest  bidder. 
In  many  cases  the  revenue  from  the  sale  of  fruit  is  sufficient  to 
i^ay  for  the  work  expended  on  the  road. 

The  custom  when  planting  trees  on  country  roadsides,  is  to 
plant  in  straight  rows.  Uniformity  of  arrangement  is  not  so 
important  for  country  roads  as  for  city  streets,  and  it  is  possible 
with  certain  species  to  produce  an  effect  so  formal  that  it  will  not  be 
in  keeping  with  the  natural  surroundings.  The  important  point 
is  to  avoid  in  country  plantings  everything  of  an  artificial  nature. 

On  narrow  roads  it  is  advisable  to  set  the  trees  very  near  the 
fence,  but  on  roads  that  are  forty  feet  or  more  in  width,  they  may 
better  be  set  about  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  highway  limits.  This 
will  allow  for  a  sidewalk  on  the  outer  side  of  the  rows  of  trees.  If 
the  farmer  is  planting  the  trees  at  his  own  expense  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  set  them  on  his  own  land,  probably  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  fence,  except  where  the  road  is  very  wide.     The 


70  TEEES  IN  WINTEB 

permanent  trees  on  one  side  of  the  road  should  be  set  opposite 
the  spaces  on  the  opposite  side.  This  will  allow  more  room  for 
the  spreading  tops  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  the  appearance  oi 
formality.  Where  the  roads  are  narrow  and  where  the  trees  must 
be  planted  within  the  highway  limits^  it  is  well  to  avoid  the 
larger-growing  species. 

THE  USE  OF  TREES  AROUND  THE  HOME 

The  Location  of  the  Home  —  It  is  remarkable  that  so  many 
country  residences  are  located  on  the  hill-tops,  fully  exposed  to  the 
cold  winter  winds.  Such  locations  usually  are  not  only  unattractive, 
but  are  decidedly  inconvenient.  It  is  true  that  the  higher  ele- 
vations offer  better  views  of  the  landscape,  but,  as  Mr.  Manning 
has  remarked,  "One  soon  tires  of  a  fine  view,  if  it  is  secured  at  the 
expense  of  a  daily  climb  up  a  long  hill."  It  would  seem  more 
desirable  to  select  for  the  residence  a  less  elevated  site  and  reserve 
the  hill-top  for  an  occasional  view  of  the  distant  landscape.  More 
pleasing  planting  effects  also  may  be  produced  on  a  gently  sloping 
hill-side.  The  matter  of  convenience  is  of  greatest  importance  and^ 
of  course,  should  be  given  precedence  over  esthetic  considerations. 

Adaptation — ^  Volumes  may  be  written  on  the  subject  of  rural 
adaptation.  The  present  discussion,  however,  must  be  limited  to 
that  phase  which  relates  to  trees.  It  is  hard,  however,  to  refrain  from 
expressing  disapproval  of  the  type  of  residence  usually  found  in 
the  rural  districts  of  America.  Too  many  of  them  give  the  im- 
pression that  they  have  been  lifted  from  the  crowded  city  block 
and  accidentally  dropped  in  the  country.  The  modest  frame  or 
stone  cottage  with  its  low  sloping  roof  and  graceful  dormer  win- 
dows seems  decidedly  more  pleasing  and  appropriate  than  the 
erect  red  brick  house  with  its  white  mortar,  its  bright  colored 
trimmings,  and  its  painfully-symetric  outline.  While  good  plant- 
ing will  go  a  long  way  toward  covering  up  deficiencies  in  the 
make-up  of  the  house,  the  best  results  can  be  attained  only  when 
the  building  harmonizes  with  the  surroundings. 

Oftentimes  there  is  just  as  much  lack  of  harmony  in  the  choice 
of  species  and  the  planting  arrangement  as  in  the  stiff  and  formal 
dwelling  house.  The  formal  style  as  applied  to  landscape  art 
seems  entirely  out  of  place  "amid  the  green  fields,  and  beside 
the  wanton  gracefulness  of  luxuriant  nature."  In  the  past  there 
has  been  a  great  tendency  to  follow  European  styles  and  to  use 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  71 

foreign  species  of  trees  and  slirubs.  The  attempts  at  formal 
gardening  in  rural  districts  are  becoming  less  frequent  and  it  is 
encouraging  to  note  that  there  are  fewer  people  nowadays  who 
believe  that  it  is  necessary  to  trim  trees  in  a  variety  of  fantastic 
shapes  to  bring  out  their  beauty.  The  tendency  at  the  present 
time  is  to  use  fewer  of  the  exotic  forms  and  to  depend  more  upon 
the  native  flora^  especially  in  respect  to  trees.  As  suggested  for 
roadside  planting,  the  rural  home  builder  would  do  well  to  go  to 
a  neighboring  forest  for  his  trees.  The  foreign  species  are  not 
so  well  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  this  is  an  additional 
reason  for  choosing  native  forms. 

On  the  small  or  medium-sized  place  it  is  not  always  practicable 
to  engage  a  trained  landscape  gardner.  The  owner  will  probably 
get  more  pleasure  from  the  home  surroundings  if  he  can  claim 
some  credit  for  their  creation.  The  style  may  not  be  correct  in  all 
its  details,  but  it  is  likely  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  family  and 
to  increase  the  knowledge  and  interest  of  the  owner.  For  the 
planning  and  planting  of  large  estates  it  is  usually  advisable  to 
engage  a  landscape  architect  of  ability  and  reputation.  There  are 
many  so-called  landscape  gardeners  soliciting  contracts  of  this 
kind  who  are  wholly  unreliable  and  who  are  likely  to  do  more 
harm  than  good. 
-^  The  Function  of  Trees  in  Home  Decoration  —  The  fundamental 
uses  of  trees  around  the  home  are  to  furnish  the  great  masses  of 
vegetation  with  which  to  frame  the  home  picture,  to  direct  and 
restrict  the  views  along  desirable  lines,  to  screen  objectionable 
objects,  to  emphasize  the  elevations  of  the  ground,  to  vary  the 
sky-line,  to  furnish  shade  and  shelter,  and  to  give  to  the  surround- 
ings the  ex23ression  of  comfort  and  homliness.  Trees  contribute 
to  these  purposes  mainly  by  their  foliage  which  varies  not  only 
with  the  species,  but  with  the  changes  in  season.  Their  flowers 
and  their  fruit,  while  largely  incidental,  are  valuable  attributes 
and  should  receive  careful  consideration.  Even  in  their  winter 
condition,  trees  possess  great  beauty,  although  of  a  different  kind. 

Shrubs  —  It  is  difficult  to  discuss  home  planting  without  taking 
into  consideration  the  use  of  woody  shrubs.  In  conjunction  with 
trees  they  are  useful  in  the  production  of  great  banks  of  foliage. 
As  a  rule,  trees  require  much  less  attention  than  do  shrubs,  and  by 
the  careful  selection  of  species  very  satisfactory  results  may  be 
produced  by  their  exclusive  use.  It  is  always  well,  however,  to 
include  a  few  shrubs,  even  in  the  most  unpretentious  plantings. 


72  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

Shrubs  are  largely  used  in  groups  and  belts  and  not  as  individual 
specimens.  Few  shrubs  are  sufficiently  graceful  and  characteristic 
in  habit  to  make  pleasing  objects  when  planted  singly^  but  by  their 
great  variety,  a  group  becomes  very  attractive.  Their  place  is 
largely  in  borders  with  trees  or  buildings  as  back  grounds  and  in 
clumps  in  the  open  lawn  or  in  the  bends  of  walks  and  drives. 
On  small  lots  the  shrubs  and  small  trees  should  predominate,  while 
the  larger  areas  will  stand  a  greater  proportion  of  large  trees. 

Planting  for  ^Yinter  Effect  —  It  is  remarkable  in  view  of  the  vol- 
umes that  have  been  written  on  subjects  relating  to  landscape  arch- 
itecture, that  so  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  matter  of 
planting  for  winter  effect.  Most  trees  in  the  northern  sections  are 
dormant  or  in  their  winter  condition  for  at  least  six  months  in 
every  year.  Although  people  do  not  use  their  gardens  and  grounds 
so  much  at  this  season  of  the  year  as  in  the  summer,  the  appearance 
of  the  home  surroundings  in  winter  may  be  greatly  improved  by 
the  careful  selection  of  species  and  by  their  proper  grouping.  The 
evergreens,  of  course,  are  indispensable  for  winter  effect,  but  some 
of  them  are  decidedly  more  desirable  than  others.  The  spruces, 
unless  used  with  discretion,  are  likely  to  be  too  formal  for  rural 
planting,  but  when  interspersed  with  pines  and  hemlocks  are  very 
useful  for  backgrounds.  The  hemlock  is  the  most  graceful  of  ever- 
greens and  should  be  more  generally  planted  around  rural  homes. 
It  thrives  well  in  shaded  locations  where  other  species  fail. 
There  is  a  great  variation  in  color  among  evergreens  and  the  somber 
effect  produced  by  some  kinds  may  be  greatly  diminished  by  plant- 
ing with  them  one  of  the  brighter  colored  species.  The  same  re- 
sult may  be  attained  by  using  some  of  the  contrasty  deciduous 
trees,  like  the  white  or  gray  birch.  The  value  of  the  birches  also 
may  be  greatly  enhanced  by  being  located  in  front  of  an  ever- 
green background  as  shown  on  page  231. 

The  Planting  Plan  —  The  work  of  planning  the  home  ground 
is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  plan.  (See  figs.  32  and  33). 
This  should  be  drawn  to  a  scale  and  should  show  in  the  beginning 
all  the  landscape  fixtures  or  those  features  that  must  remain 
unchanged.  Such  fixtures  include  the  buildings,  the  irregularities 
of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  valuable  shade  trees,  the  orchard, 
the  highway  and  anything  else  that  it  is  impracticable  to  move. 
The  next  step  after  locating  the  fixtures,  is  to  indicate  on  the  plan 
the  position  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 

Of  course,  anyone  who  attempts  to  make  such  a  plan,  must  have 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  73 

in  his  mind  a  fairly  clear  conception  as  to  how  the  place  should 
look  when  finished.  In  other  words,  he  must  be  somewhat  of  an 
artist.  The  required  conception  on  the  part  of  the  landscape  gard- 
ener is  not  unike  that  of  the  artist  who  paints  pictures  on  canvas. 
Many  people  are  better  artists  than  they  suppose,  and  it  does 
not  take  much  ability  to  make  a  pleasing  landscape  picture  from 
the  ordinary  country  home. 

The  landscape  gardener,  whether  amateur  or  professional,  before 
locating  his  trees  should  study  the  surroundings  with  a  view  of 
ascertaining  the  direction  of  the  most  pleasing  views.  In  this  con- 
nection he  will  consider  the  views  from  the  various  windows  of  the 
house,  from  the  veranda,  and  from  various  points  on  the  lawn.  In 
locating  the  trees,  then,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  constantly  in  mind 
these  desirable  views.  The  next  problem  will  l)e  to  block  out  any 
objectionable  viev/s,  either  on  the  home  grounds  or  on  adjacent  lands. 
The  farm  buildings  may  usually  be  screened  from  the  house  and 
from  the  highway  without  seriously  affecting  their  convenience.  In 
some  cases  the  desired  effect  may  be  produced  by  a  belt  of  trees 
and  shrubs  separating  the  front  lawn  from  the  back  yard.  This 
arrangement  is  not  always  the  most  desirable  for  it  is  often  pos- 
sible to  give  expanse  to  a  small  lawn  by  leaving  a  vista  that  extends 
far  in  rear  of  the  house.  One  or  more  clumps  of  trees  or  shrubs 
carefully  arranged  may  effectively  block  out  objectionable  views 
without  completely  closing  the  view  in  that  direction.  Further- 
more, skillful  gardeners  often  appropriate  views  through  neigh- 
boring grounds  in  order  to  give  expanse  to  a  place  that  would  other- 
wise appear  crampt.  This  is  accomplished  by  blocking  out  the 
neighboring  houses  and  by  maintaining  vistas  through  the  adja- 
cent grounds.  Similar  results  may  be  attained  by  opening  vistas 
into  adjoining  meadows  or  pasture  fields. 

With  larger  areas  it  is  often  advisable  to  separate  the  grounds  in 
such  a  way  as  to  provide  for  secluded  nooks,  and  this  is  very  easily 
accomplished  by  planting.  Such  secluded  areas,  however,  should 
be  relatively  small  and  should  not  detract  from  the  unity  of  the 
whole  scheme.  There  is  not  the  necessity  for  seclusion  in  rural  dis- 
tricts as  in  the  cities,  but  when  the  grounds  are  large  enough  it  is 
advisable  to  arrange  the  shrubbery  so  as  to  separate  a  portion  of 
the  rear  lawn  for  the  purpose  of  a  home  playground.  It  may  in- 
clude accommodations  for  pleasure  and  recreation,  such  as  tennis 
courts,  hammocks  and  the  like. 


74  TEEES  IN"  WINTER 

A  common  mistake  in  dividing  the  grounds  into  two  or  more 
parts  is  in  making  use  of  a  hedge  or  solid  belt  of  trees.  A  much 
more  pleasing  way  is  to  use  clumps  of  shrubbery.  These  may  be  a 
considerable  distance  apart,  but  so  arranged  that  they  will  block 
the  view  from  the  street  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  an  expres- 
sion of  expanse.     It  is  sometimes  desirable,  for  quick  results    to 


Figr.  31.     A  group   of  White   Pines   that 
retain  the  character  of  an  individual 

plant  trees  close  together,  and  a  clump  of  trees  of  the  same  species 
often  produces  a  pleasing  effect.  Although  the  trees  in  a  clump 
lose  some  of  their  character  as  they  mature,  the  group  as  a  whole 
often  assumes  the  character  of  an  individual  tree  of  the  species  as 
shown  in  figure  31. 

The  Finished  Picture  —  Where  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  prop- 
erly grouped  the  result  should  present  a  pleasing  picture.  The 
house  will  naturally  be  the  central  figure  and  any  planting  scheme 
that  will  detract  attention  from  the  house  is  not  considered  good 
taste.  The  vistas  from  the  highway  should  lead  to  the  central 
figure  —  the  house.  The  shrubbery,  if  well  planned,  will  form  an 
appropriate  frame  to  the  landscape  picture.  The  shrubbery  that  is 
not  located  in  the  border  or  frame  of  the  picture  should  contribute 
somewhat  to  the  picture  itself.  Such  trees  and  shrubs,  therefore, 
should  be  attractive  and  should  be  closely  related  to  the  house.  If 
many  trees  are  scattered  over  the  ground  one  is  likely  to  lose  sight 
of  the  central  figure  and  the  result  is  likely  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  a  tree  museum  rather  than  a  home  picture. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  75 


CHAPTER  IV 
TREE  PLANTmG  IN  TOWNS  AND  CITIES. 

TREES   IN  RELATION  TO  CITY  LIFE. 

When  we  think  of  the  open  country  we  are  reminded  of  the  cool 
and  shady  roads,  although  some  country  roads  are  not  so  alluring 
as  they  ought  to  be.  The  thought  is  comforting.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  we  think  of  conditions  in  the  city,  the  hot  and  dazzling 
pavements  present  themselves  vividly  to  our  memory.  The 
thought  is  anything  hut  comforting.  Blessed  is  the  city  that  is 
well  supplied  with  trees.  An  occasional  city  has  been  so  well 
blessed  in  this  respect  that  it  has  become  famous  the  country  over, 
and  such  a  city  is  often  designated  as  the  Forest  City,  the  Elm 
City,  or  the  City  of  Parks. 

The  attractiveness  of  a  city  depends  largely  upon  its  trees.  A 
city  without  trees  cannot  be  attractive,  and  the  more  trees  within 
the  city  limits,  the  more  attractive  is  the  city  likely  to  be.  Most 
cities  are  anxious  to  attract  visitors  and  permanent  settlers,  and 
the  success  of  cities  in  this  direction  will  depend  largely  upon  their 
supply  of  trees.  Trees,  therfore,  by  making  a  city  more  attractive, 
tend  to  increase  the  value  of  real  estate.  The  value  of  trees  to  any 
particular  property  is  manifested  by  comparing  the  selling  price  of 
property  with  and  without  trees.  In  some  cases  a  lot  with  two  or 
three  trees  along  its  front  boundary  will  sell  at  a  price  fifty  per  cent, 
higher  than  a  similar  adjacent  lot  without  trees. 

The  real  value  of  shade  trees  to  abutting  property  has  also  been 
shown  by  court  decisions,  although  in  the  past  judges  have  usually 
underestimated  their  true  worth.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  an  editorial  in  the  Newark  Evening  News,  under  date  of  July 
20,  1911:  — 

"The  Appellate  Division  of  the  New  York  Supreme  Court  has 
confirmed  a  judgment  of  the  lower  court,  fixing  what  may  be 
called  a  good  round  value  on  trees  in  the  city. 


76  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

'^A  construction  company  doing  some  work  on  a  street,  found 
that  the  trees  hindered  their  progress.  They  thereupon  cut  down 
the  trees  without  so  much  as  considering  for  a  moment  their  value 
to  the  owner's  property. 

"Suit  was  at  once  brought  against  the  company,  the  damages  be- 
ing laid  at  $500,  for  each  tree  cut  down.  The  Plaintiff  recovered 
for  the  full  amount  as  the  value  of  the  trees,  and  the  court  added 
$1,000,  more  for  punitive  damages.  It  was  this  verdict  that  was 
carried  to  the  Appellate  Court  and  has  been  sustained.^' 

Five  hundred  dollars  may  seem  a  large  sum  for  a  tree  in  the 
city,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  value  of  the  trees  as 
kindling  wood  or  as  lumber,  or  even  as  the  material  for  house 
trimmings  or  furniture,  is  not  the  thing  to  be  considered.  The 
tree  required  many  years  to  grow.  It  not  only  adorned  the  prop- 
erty but  it  afforded  health,  comfort,  enjoyment  and  protection  to 
its  owners.  Its  place,  when  destroyed,  could  not  be  filled  by  an- 
other tree  inside  of  fifteen,  twenty,  or  thirty  years,  and  all  this  time 
the  owners  of  the  property  are  deprived  of  its  benefits. 

Municipalities  have  just  come  to  recognize  the  value  of  trees 
from  the  standpoint  of  health.  Since  trees  absorb  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  from  the  air  it  is  believed  that  they  help  to  purify  the  air. 
Health  authorities  are  now  recommending  the  planting  of  trees  in 
the  cities  with  a  view  of  mitigating  the  intense  heat  during  the 
summer  months  and  of  diminishing  the   death-rate  among  chil- 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STREET  PLANTING 
Although  at  the  present  time  much  attention  is  being  given  to 
the  planting  and  care  of  trees  in  cities,  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
matter  has  not  received  more  attention  in  the  past.  The  cost  of 
setting  out  trees  is  so  small  compared  with  the  lasting  benefits  de- 
rived from  them,  that  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  cities  and  towns 
should  not  take  up  the  work  on  an  extensive  basis.  The  smaller 
towns  should  profit  from  the  experience  of  tlie  larger  and  older 
cities.  The  problem  is  decidedly  less  difficult  with  small  towns, 
for  they  can  plan  their  streets  with  a  view  of  having  them  lined 
with  trees.  Trees  that  get  a  good  start  wlien  the  town  is  young 
are  more  likely  to  thrive  well  and  to  administer  to  the  needs  of  the 
mature  city,  tlian  those  that  are  planted  later,  when  they  are  sub- 
jected to  all  the  hardships  of  the  crowded  city  streets. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  77 

The  principles  involved  in  the  planting  of  city  streets  are  entirely 
different  from  those  involved  in  the  planting  of  country  roads. 
In  the  city  the  treatment  necessarily  must  be  of  a  formal  nature 
to  harmonize  with  the  geometric  lines  of  city  streets.  City  plant- 
ing is  done  amid  artificial  surroundings  and  in  this  respect  it  differs 
radically  from  country  planting,  which  is  always  associated  with 
natural  objects.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the  trees  on  a  city 
street  should  be  uniform  in  character  and  should  be  planted  in 
straight  lines. 

Arrangement  of  Trees  on  the  Street  —  It  is  essential  for  the  best 
results  that  streets  be  sufficiently  wide  to  admit  of  a  strip  of 
ground  between  the  sidewalk  and  the  curb  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  trees.  This  strip  need  not  be  more  than  four  or  five  feet  in 
width,  but  twice  this  width  w^ould  give  the  street  a  better  appear- 
ance and  would  facilitate  the  growth  of  the  trees.  On  some  streets 
there  is  no  strip  left  for  this  purpose,  and  the  trees  necessarily 
must  grow  through  openings  in  the  sidewalk.  Trees  in  such  posi- 
tions do  not  look  so  well  and  are  not  likely  to  thrive  so  well.  In 
some  cases,  where  the  roots  may  extend  beneath  the  walk  to  the 
open  spaces  in  front  of  the  residences,  the  trees  are  not  likely  to  be 
seriously  handicapped.  Where  the  street  is  too  narrow  for  a  suit- 
able planting  strip  and  where  there  is  an  open  space  on  the  abut- 
ting property,  it  would  seem  advisable  to  place  the  sidewalk  near 
the  curb  and  to  plant  the  trees  along  the  inside  of  the  walk.  When 
the  buildings  are  close  to  the  street  and  when  there  is  no  room  for 
a  planting  strip,  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  the  develop- 
ment of  trees.  Oftentimes  the  roadways  are  wider  than  is  neces- 
sary to  accommodate  the  traffic.  In  such  cases  they  should  be  re- 
duced in  order  to  make  room  for  planting. 

When  the  planting  strip  is  narrow  the  trees  are  usually  set  in 
the  center,  but  with  wider  strips  their  position  will  depend  upon 
the  width  of  the  street  and  the  proximity  to  tall  buildings.  Where 
the  street  is  wide  the  trees  may  be  set  near  the  curb.  There  is 
danger,  of  course,  in  getting  the  trees  too  near  the  curb,  where  they 
are  likely  to  be  injured  by  horses  and  vehicles.  On  the  other 
hand,  where  the  buildings  are  tall  and  near  the  street,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  place  the  trees  as  near  the  curb  as  possible,  excej^t  where 
the  streets  are  very  wide. 


78  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Parking  Strips  —  With  very  wide  streets  it  is  customary  to  re- 
serve "parking  strips"  down  through  the  center  for  the  planting 
of  one  or  more  rows  of  trees.  Such  reservations  are  not  recom- 
mended for  streets  less  than  one  hundred  feet  in  width.  Where 
two  rows  of  trees  are  required  on  this  strip,  and  this  is  always  ad- 
visable, the  street  should  be  at  least  130  feet  in  width.  The  park- 
ing- strip  when  narrow  is  often  used  for  the  planting  of  shrubbery 
alone.  Wider  strips  are  often  used  for  walks,  bicycle  paths,  and 
street  railway  tracks. 

Very  pleasing  planting  effects  may  be  produced  on  wide  streets 
or  avenues  with  parking  strips  to  accommodate  two  additional  rows 
of  trees.  While  it  is  customary  to  plant  but  one  species  on  ordinary 
streets,  the  appearance  of  avenues  or  boulevards  may  be  greatly  en- 
hanced by  planting  a  strikingly  different  species  along  the  parking 
strip.  On  some  of  the  widest  streets  we  frequently  find  two  rows 
along  each  side  of  the  street.  This  arrangement  is  seldom  satis- 
factory for  the  reason  that  the  trees  are  likely  to  become  too  crowd- 
ed. Streets  that  are  wide  enough  to  accommodate  four  rows  of 
trees  are  usually  wide  enough  for  a  parking  strip  which  would  ac- 
commodate two  rows  of  trees  and  thus  give  a  better  distribution. 

Distance  Between  Trees  —  It  is  well  to  adopt  a  uniform  system 
of  spacing  the  various  varieties  of  street  trees.  The  individuals 
should  be  so  spaced  that  they  may  develop  into  perfect  specimens. 
The  distance  between  the  trees  should  be  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
natural  spread  of  the  species  when  mature.  Of  course,  such  factors 
as  environmental  conditions,  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  severity 
of  the  climate,  and  the  amount  of  protection  the  trees  receive,  will 
exert  considerable  influence  upon  the  ultimate  development.  The 
distance  at  which  the  commonly  planted  street  trees  should  be 
spaced  is  about  as  follows :  — 

White   Ehn 50     feet 

Sycamore    45       *^ 

Sugar  Maple   45       '^ 

Silver  Maple   45       " 

Sycamore  Maple   45       ^^ 

Red  Maple „ 40       " 

Norway  Maple 40       ^' 

White  Oak 50       " 

Scarlet  Oak   45       " 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  79 

Eed  Oak 45       " 

Chestnut  Oak .45       '' 

Pin  Oak 40       " 

Tulip   50       " 

Common  Locust   45       '^ 

Honey  Locust   40       '^ 

White  Ash   45       " 

Linden 40       " 

Horse  Chestnut 35       " 

Sweet  Gum   35       " 

Ginkgo    35       '' 

Hackberry    35       ^' 

Ailanthus    30       '' 

Carolina  Poplar    30       " 

Lombardy  Poplar   25       " 

Hardy  Catalpa    30       " 

Kentucky  Coffee   30       " 

It  is  not  always  practicable  to  place  trees  at  regular  distances, 
for  they  must  be  made  to  fit  in  a  given  stretch  between  cross  streets. 
In  some  places  the  trees  are  arranged  along  the  street. in  relation  to 
the  abutting  property.  This  is  not  right,  for  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  likely  to  lack  uniformity.  It  is  usually  best  to  have  the 
trees  regularly  spaced  and  where  the  street  is  wide  enough  for 
their  full  development  they  should  be  planted  opposite  one  an- 
other. On  narrow  streets,  for  the  sake  of  giving  them  more  room, 
the  trees  on  one  side  of  the  street  may  be  planted  opposite  the 
spaces  on  the  other  side.  The  chief  objection  to  this  method  of 
arrangement  is  the  uneven  appearance  that  it  presents  at  the  street 
intersections.  Whether  planted  opposite  or  alternately  the  rows 
should  not  extend  exactly  to  the  corner,  for  in  such  positions  they 
are  more  likely  to  be  injured  and  are  also  likely  to  interfere  Avith 
the  illumination  of  the  streets. 

Permanent  and  Temporary  Planting  —  It  is  always  advisable  to 
plant  long-lived  trees  on  city  streets.  There  is  always  a  tempta- 
tion, for  the  sake  of  getting  early  results,  to  plant  rapid-growing 
species.  The  rapid-growing  species  are  usually  short-lived,  and 
for  this  reason  are  objectionable.  While  it  is  usually  best  to  plant 
only  one  species  on  a  given  street  it  is  sometimes  permissible  to 
alternate  the  permanent  trees  with  trees  of  a  quick-growing  spe- 


80  TREES  IN  WINTER 

cies.  The  prevailing  objections  to  such  a  practice  are  that  it  breaks 
up  the  uniformity  and  that  the  temporary  trees  are  likely  to  be 
left  too  long,  in  this  way  injuring  the  permanent  planting.  Trees 
radically  different  in  form  and  coloring,  like  the  Red  Oak  and 
Carolina  Poplar,  should  present  a  pleasing  effect  when  regularly 
and  alternately  spaced.  AVhen  the  temporary  trees  begin  to  re- 
strict the  supply  of  sunlight  and  the  supply  of  plant  food  and 
moisture,  they  should  be  promptly  cut  down. 

The  Best  Species  for  City  Streets  —  In  the  selection  of  spe- 
cies it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  the  width  of  the  street,  the  height 
and  proximity  of  buildings,  the  character  of  soil,  and  the  relative 
susceptibility  to  injury  from  the  effects  of  insects,  diseases,  smoke, 
impure  air,  escaping  gas,  'high  and  low  temperatures,  ice  storms, 
and  general  neglect.  The  ornamental  value  of  the  various  species 
should  also  be  considered.  Some  trees  are  peculiar  for  their  flowers, 
others  for  their  summer  or  autumn  foliage,  and  still  others  for  their 
symmetry.  Furthermore,  a  street  tree  should  furnish  the  required 
shade,  and  species  differ  greatly  in  this  respect.  Again,  some  trees 
like  the  staminate  Ailanthus  are  offensive  on  account  of  their  odor, 
and  others  like  the  Horse-chestnut  and  the  Locusts  are  objectionable 
on  account  of  unclean  habits. 

The  ^Yhite  or  American  Elm  is  probably  the  most  commonly 
planted  street  tree.  It  makes  a  tall,  graceful  growth  and  has 
many  commendable  points.  Unfortunately  it  is  subject  while  young 
to  the  attacks  of  borers  and  to  the  ravages  of  the  leaf-beetle  and 
other  insects  throughout  its  whole  existence.  It  is  still  largely 
planted,  especially  in  suburban  sections  where  there  is  a  desire  to 
produce  a  natural  effect. 

The  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  use  for  city  street  plant- 
ing the  species  that  present  a  more  formal  appearance.  The  fol- 
lowing are  likely  to  give  good  results  under  varying  conditions: 
Red  Oak,  Pin  Oak,  Scarlet  Oak,  Eed  Maple,  Xorway  Maple,  Syca- 
more Maple,  American  and  European  Linden,  Sycamore,  Ginkgo, 
Ailanthus,  Hackberry,  Sweetgum. 

Trees  of  Rapid  Growth  —  Where  early  results  are  necessar}^,  such 
varieties  as  the  Carolina  Poplar,  Box  Elder,  Hardy  Catalpa,  Silver 
Maple,  Linden,  and  Sycamore  may  be  employed.  The  following 
table  prepared  by  the  late  William  F.  Fox,  superintendent  of  for- 
ests for  the  state  of  New  York,  gives  the  relative  growth-rate  of 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  81 

a  number  of  native  species.     The  table  is  based  upon  the  behavior 

of  saplings  which  in  tlie  beginning  were  three  inches  in  diameter. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  20  years  they  should  attain  the  diameter 

indicated  in  the  table  :  — 

Silver  Maple   21     inches 

White   Elm    19 

Sycamore    18         " 

Tulip   Tree    18 

Linden    17 

Catalpa    16 

Eed  Maple  16 

Ailanthus    16         " 

Cucumber  Tree   15         " 

Chestnut 14 

Common  Locust 14         " 

Sugar  Maple .13         " 

Horse-chestnut    13         " 

Honey  Locust 13         " 

Eed  Oak 13         " 

Pin  Oak 13         " 

Scarlet  Oak   13 

White  Ash   12 

White  Oak 12 

Hackberry    10         " 

MUNICIPAL  CONTROL  OF  SHADE   TREES 

There  are  many  reasons  why  the  planting  and  care  of  shade  trees 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  municipal  authorities.  If  the 
work  is  left  to  the  property  holders  the  streets  will  lack  uniformity 
and  the  result  is  usually  a  jumble  of  trees  of  various  species,  of  va- 
rious ages,  and  planted  at  various  distances  and  in  various  ways,  in 
line  and  out  of  line,  continuous  and  interrupted.  Examples  of 
the  result  of  such  methods  may  be  seen  in  almost  any  city. 

Municipal  control  is  not  a  new  idea  as  applied  to  shade  trees, 
but  only  during  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  has  its  adoption  been 
at  all  general.  The  laws  of  IMassachusetts  require  each  town  and 
city  to  appoint  some  one  or  more  officials  whose  duty  shall  be  the 
planting  and  care  of  shade  trees.  Such  officials  are  designated  by 
various  titles,  the  more  common  being:  Tree  Warden,  ^it"  For- 


82  TREES  IN  WINTER 

ester  and  Street  Commissioner .  Many  states  have  in  their  statute 
books  laws  relating  to  shade  trees  in  towns  and  cities.  The  most 
progressive  legislation  along  this  line  is  found  in  the  laws  of  ^ew 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts.  Each  of  these  states 
leaves  the  towns  and  cities  free  to  supplement  the  statutes  by  local 
ordinances.  For  the  guidance  of  municipalities  that  are  contem- 
plating the  problem  of  municipal  control,  the  shade  tree  ordinance 
of  the  city  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  is  here  given  in  full :  — 

BE    IT   ORDAINED   by   the   Shade    Tree   Commission   of   the   City   of 
Newark,  New  Jersey,  as  follows  : 

1.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation,  without 
the  written  permit  of  the  Shade  Tree  Commission,  to  cut,  break,  climb 
or  injure  any  tree  or  portion  of  tree  planted  or  growing  in  any  public 
highway  within  the  City  of  Newark,  or  cause,  authorize  or  procure 
any  person  to  cut,  break,  climb  or  injure  any  such  tree  or  any  portion 
thereof ;  or  to  cut,  break,  climb  or  injure  any  tree  or  plant,  or  any 
portion  of  any  tree  or  plant,  planted  or  growing  in  any  city  park  or 
parking  strip  within  the  City  of  Newark,  or  cause  or  authorize  or 
procure  any  person  to  cut,  break,  climb  or  injure  any  such  tree  or 
plant  or  any  portion  of  such  tree  or  plant ;  or  to  injure,  misuse  or 
remove,  or  cause,  authorize  or  procure  any  person  to  injure,  misuse 
or  remove  any  device  set  for  the  protection  of  any  tree  or  plant  in 
any  public  highway  or  city  park  of  said  City.  Any  person,  firm  or 
corporation  desiring  for  any  lawful  purpose  to  cut,  prune  or  trim  any 
tree  in  any  public  highway  of  said  City  of  Newark  may  apply  to  the 
Shade  Tree  Commission  ;  and  if  in  the  judgment  of  said  Commission 
the  desired  cutting,  pruning  or  trimming  shall  appear  necessary,  and 
the  proposed  method  and  workmanship  thereof  such  as  said  Commis- 
sion approves,  the  Shade  Tree  Commission  may  thereupon  issue  a 
written  permit  for  such  work.  Any  work  done  under  such  written 
permit  must  be  performed  in  strict  accordance  with  the  terms  thereof. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize 
or  procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  or  of  any 
permission  given  as  aforesaid  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  forfeit 
and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for  each  and  every  such 
offense. 

2.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  kill 
or  remove,  or  cause,  authorize  or  procure  the  death  or  removal  of, 
any  tree  planted  or  growing  in  any  public  highway,  or  any  tree  or 
plant  planted  or  growing  in  any  city  park,  within  the  said  City  of 
Newark.  Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  desiring  for  any  lawful 
purpose  to  take  down  or  remove  any  tree  in  any  public  highway  of 
said  City  of  Newark  may  apply  to  the  Shade  Tree  Commission ;  and 
if  in  the  judgment  of  the  said  Commission  the  desired  taking  down 
or  removal  shall  appear  necessary,  the  Shade  Tree  Commission  may 
thereupon  issue  a  written  permit  therefor.  Any  work  done  under  such 
written  permit  must  be  performed  in  strict  accordance  with  the  terms 
thereof. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  83 


viction  thereof,   forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Fifty  Dollars    ($50)    for 
each  and    every   such   offense.  ' 

3.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  owning, 
or  using,  or  having  control  or  charge  of  gas  or  other  substance 
deleterious  to  tree  life  to  allow  such  gas  or  other  substance  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  soil  surrounding  the  roots  of  any  tree  in  any 
public  highway  or  of  any  tree  or  plant  in  any  city  park  in  the  City 
of  Newark  in   such  manner  as   may   injure   such   tree   or   plant. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize 
or  procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10) 
for  each  and  every  such  offense. 

4.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  owning, 
or  using,  or  having  control  or  charge  of  gas  or  other  substance 
deleterious  to  tree  life,  to  allow  such  gas  or  other  substance  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  soil  surrounding  the  roots  of  any  tree  in  any 
public  highway  or  any  tree  or  plant  in  any  city  park  in  the  City  of 
Ne^'ark  in  such  manner  as  shall  kill  or  destroy  such  tree  or  plant. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Fifty  Dollars  ($50)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

5.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
cause,  authorize  or  procure  any  brine  water,  oil,  liquid  dye  or  other 
substance  deleterious  to  tree  life  to  lie,  leak,  pour,  flow  or  drip  on  or 
into  the  soil  about  the  base  of  a  tree  in  any  public  highway  or  city 
park  in  the  City  of  Newark,  or  onto  a  sidewalk,  road  or  pavement 
therein  at  a  point  whence  such  substance  may  by  lying  on,  or  by 
flowing,  dripping  or  seeping  into  such  soil,  or  in  any  other  manner 
whatever,  injure  such  tree  ;  or  to  cause  or  procure  such  lying,  leaking, 
flowing,  dripping,  seeping  or  injuring. 

Any  person,  flrm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize 
or  procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5) 
for  each  and  every  such  offense. 

6.  It  shall  be  imlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation,  except 
with  the  written  permit  of  the  Shade  Tree  Commission,  to  place  or 
maintain  upon  the  ground  in  any  public  highway  or  city  park  within 
the  City  of  Newark  any  stone,  cement  or  other  material  or  substance 
in  such  manner  as  may  obstruct  the  free  access  of  air  and  water  to 
the  roots  of  any  tree  in  any  such  highway  or  park.  Unless  otherwise 
provided  for  in  feuch  written  permit  as  above  provided  for  there  must 
be  maintained  about  the  base  of  the  trunk  of  each  shade  tree  in  the 
public  highways  and  city  parks  of  the  city  at  least  six  square  feet  of 
open  ground  for  a  tree  of  three  inches  in.  diameter,  and  for  every  two 
inches  of  increase  of  such  diameter  there  must  be  an  increase  of  at 
least  one  square  foot  of  open  ground. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 


84  TREES  IN  WINTER 


7.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  inter- 
fere or  cause  or  authorize  or  procure  any  interference  with  the  Shade 
Tree  Commission  or  any  of  its  employees,  ag-ents  or  servants  while 
they  are  engaged  in  and  about  the  planting,  cultivating,  mulching, 
pruning,  spraying  or  removing  of  any  tree  in  any  public  highway  or 
city  park  within  the  said  City,  or  in  the  removing  of  any  device 
attached  to  said  tree  or  in  such  removing  of  stone,  cement,  sidewalk 
or  other  material  or  substance  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  protection 
and  care  of  any  such  tree  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  set 
forth  in  Section  6  hereof  as  to  the  area  of  open  ground  to  be  main- 
tained about  the  base  of  the  trunk  of  each  shade  tree  in  the  public 
highwaj'^s  and  city  parks  of  the  City. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10) 
for  each  and  every  such  offense. 

8.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  cause, 
authorize  or  procure  a  wire  or  other  conductor,  charged  with  electricity, 
to  come  into  contact  with  any  tree  in  a  public  highway  or  with  any 
tree  or  plant  in  a  city  park  in  the  City  of  Newark  in  such  manner 
as  may  injure  or  abrade  such  tree  or  plant. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

9.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  cause 
or  authorize  or  procure  a  wire  or  other  conductor,  charged  with 
electricity,  to  come  into  contact  with  any  tree  in  a  public  highway 
or  any  tree  or  plant  in  a  city  park  in  the  City  of  New^ark  in  such 
manner  as  shall  destroy  or  kill  such  tree  or  plant. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Fifty  Dollars  ($50)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense, 

10.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
attach  or  keep  attached  to  any  tree  in  any  public  highway  or  city 
park  in  the  City  of  Newark,  or  to  the  guard  or  stake  intended  for 
the  protection  of  such  tree,  any  rope,  wire,  sign  or  any  other  device 
whatsoever. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

11.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  tie 
any  horse  or  other  animal  to  any  tree  in  any  public  highway  or  city 
park  within  said  City  of  Newark  ;  or,  having  charge  of  such  horse  or 
other  animal,  to  allow  or  cause  or  procure  it  to  injure  any  such  tree ; 
or  for  any  person  in  charge  of  such  horse  or  other  anim.al  to  cause  or 
allow  it  to  stand  so  that  it  can  injure  such  tree. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this   section  shall,   upon  con- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


85 


Viction  thereof,   forfeit  and   pay  a  penalty  of  Ten   Dollars    ($10)    for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

12.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  plant 
or  set  out  any  shade  tree,  or  cause  or  authorize  or  procure  any 
person  to  plant  or  set  out  any  shade  tree,  in  or  on  any  part  of  any 
public  highway  or  city  park  within  the  said  City  of  Newark  without 
first  obtaining  from  the  Shade  Tree  Commission  a  written  permit  so 
to  do  or  without  complying  in  all  respects  with  the  conditions  set 
forth  in  such  written  permit. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

13.  During  the  erection,  repair,  alteration  or  removal  of  any  build- 
ing or  structure  within  the  City  of  Newark  it  shall  be  unlawful  for 
the  person  or  persons  in  charge  of  such  erection,  repair,  alteration  or 
removal,  to  leave  any  street  tree  in  the  vicinity  of  such  building  or 
structure  without  such  good  and  sufficient  guards  or  protectors  as 
shall  prevent  injury  to  said  tree,  arising  out  of  or  by  reason  of  said 
erection,  repair,  alteration  or  removal. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

14.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
enter  upon  any  portion  of  lawn  or  other  cultivated  ground  in  any 
city  park  within  the  said  City  of  Newark  when  forbidden  so  to  do 
by  an  official  sign  or  other  official  notification. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

15.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
throw,  deposit  or  leave  any  paper  or  waste  material  whatsoever  in 
or  upon  any  part  of  the  surface  of  any  city  park  within  said  City 
of  Newark  or  in  or  upon  any  park  property  or  appurtenance  therein 
except  in  the  receptacles  provided  in  such  park  for  that  purpose. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction tkereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for  each 
and  every  such  offense. 

16.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  above  the  age  of  fourteen 
years  to  play  at  any  game  in  a  city  park  in  the  City  of  Newark, 
except  at  such  times  and  in  such  places  and  under  such  regulations 
as  may  be  designated   in  writing  by  the   Shade  Tree  Commission. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize 
or  procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10)  for 
each  and  every  such  offence. 


86  TREES  IN  WINTER 


17.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
place  or  erect  any  booth,  stand  or  other  structure,  or  to  place  any 
wag-on  or  other  vehicle,  except  such  as  may  be  propelled  by  hand 
and  adapted  for  the  carrying  of  children,  invalids  or  dolls,  on  or  in 
anj^  city  park  of  the  City  of  Newark,  without  the  written  permission 
of  the  Shade  Tree  Commission. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollar§  ($10)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

18.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to  sell 
or  offer  for  sale  within  any  city  park  of  the  City  of  Newark  any 
goods,  wares  or  merchandise  whatsoever,  or  to  display  or  distribute 
any  advertising  device,  circular  or  card  in  any  such  park. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

19.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
deface,  damage,  or  in  any  wise  injure  any  statuary  or  pedestal,  or 
other  structure  or  park  appurtenance  whatsoever,  in  a  city  park  in 
the  City  of  Newark. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize 
or  procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon 
conviction  thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

20.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm  or  corporation  to 
hunt,  molest,  injure,  capture  or  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  freedom 
of  any  bird,  being  free  and  undomesticated,  in  any  city  park  in  the 
City  of  "Newark  ;  or  to  hunt,  molest,  injure,  capture,  or  in  any  way 
interfere  with  the  freedom  of  any  squirrel,  fish  or  other  animal,  being 
the   property  of   the   City,    in  any   such   park. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Five  Dollars ($5)  for  each 
and  every  such  offense. 

21.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  utter  any  profane, 
threatening  or  abusive  language  or  loud  outcry,  or  perform  any  obscene 
or  indecent  act,  commit  any  nuisance,  solicit  any  contribution  or 
subscription,  or  to  play  any  game  of  chance,  in  any  city  park  within 
the  City  of  Newark,  or  to  bring  into  such  park  any  instrument  of 
chance  or  gambling  whatsoever. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  which  shall  violate  or  authorize  or 
procure  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  section  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  Ten  Dollars  ($10)  for 
each  and  every  such  offense. 

22.  Every  violation  by  the  same  person,  firm  or  corporation,  of 
any  provision  of  any  section  of  this  Ordinance,  which  continues  on 
any  day  or  days  succeeding  the  first  violation  thereof,  shall  constitute 
an  additional  violation  for  each  of  such  succeeding  days. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  bl 

23.  All    Ordinances    and    parts    of    Ordinances    heretofore    ordained 
which  are  inconsistent  with  this  Ordinance  are  hereby  repealed. 

24.  This  Ordinance  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

The  Newark  Shade  Tree  Commission  is  invested  by  statute  with 
"exclusive  and  absolute  control  and  power  to  plant,  set  out,  main- 
tain, protect  and  care  for  shade  trees  in  any  of  the  public  highways 
of  the  city  of  Xewark;  and  with  exclusive  control  of  the  public 
parks  belonging  to  or  under  control  of  the  city  of  Newark,  or  any 
department  in  the  government  thereof,  with  full  power  and  author- 
ity to  improve,  repair,  manage  and  control  the  same." 

PARKS  AND  PUBLIC  SQUARES 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  most  of  the  older  cities 
there  was  little  expectation  that  such  settlements  would  ever  de- 
velop into  such  enormous  centers  of  population.  Little  attention, 
therefore,  was  given  to  the  matter  of  making  provision  for  future 
needs,  and  as  a  result  some  of  the  cities  have  suddenly  realized  the 
need  of  parks  and  have  expended  vast  sums  of  money  in  acquiring 
land  for  this  purpose.  Some  cities  early  realized  the  necessity  for 
setting  aside  large  tracts  of  land  for  public  use  and  others  have 
had  lands  donated  or  bequeathed  to  them  with  the  stipulation  that 
they  be  used  for  parks  or  play-grounds.  The  smaller  towns  have 
profited  by  the  experience  of  the  older  cities  and  many  of  them 
are  making  reservations  for  park  purposes.  There  is,  therefore,  a 
demand  on  the  part  of  the  smaller  municipalities  for  information 
relating  to  the  selection  and  planting  of  trees  for  parks  and  pul)lic 
squares. 

The  Natural  Type  —  In  the  making  of  parks  the  tendency  at 
the  present  time  is  to  maintain  or  develop  some  natural  landscape. 
Most  of  the  largest  and  best  known  parks  of  this  country  are  of 
the  natural  type.  The  designers  of  the  large  city  parks  have  real- 
ized the  need  of  a  large  and  secluded  strolling  ground.  Only 
the  larger  tracts  of  land  are  suited  to  the  natural  type  of  park.  In 
some  instances,  like  Keney  Park,  Hartford;  Mount  Royal 
Park,  Montreal ;  and  many  others,  the  native  forest  has  been  pre- 
served. The  making  of  a  natural  park  from  an  existing  forest 
is  a  simple  matter,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  planning  and  construct- 
ing of  the  walks  and  drives.  Many  of  our  large  natural  parks, 
however,  had  in  the  beginning  very  little,  if  any,  woodland,  and 


88  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

most  of  the  trees  that  are  now  found  growing  in  them  have  been 
23lanted.  In  the  planting  of  these  parks  the  landscape  gardeners 
have  freely  copied  from  nature.  In  some,  like  Central  Park,  New 
York,  certain  sections  have  been  set  aside  for  formal  or  semi-arti- 
ficial gardening. 

In  the  department  of  a  park  of  the  natural  type,  it  is  advisable, 
as  far  as  possible,  to  arrange  the  trees  in  groups  according  to  spe- 
cies. In  this  connection  it  is  always  well  to  study  the  special  adap- 
tation of  the  various  species.  Some  prefer  a  light  soil,  while  others 
thrive  best  on  heavy  or  moist  soil.  Some  must  have  an  abundance 
of  light,  while  others  require  some  protection  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  It  is  hoped  that  the  lists  given  in  the  following  chapter 
may  be  of  some  assistance  in  the  way  of  locating  the  trees  in  their 
most  comfortable  environment. 

The  planting  in  a  natural  city  park  should  be  so  arranged  that 
nothing  can  be  seen  that  suggests  the  city.  With  this  in  mind  the 
borders  should  be  supplied  with  a  fairly  dense  growth  of  trees 
and  shrubs.  Some  of  the  large  growing  evergreens  will  be  found 
useful  for  this  purpose,  using  some  brighter  colored  species,  of 
course,  to  enliven  the  effect. 

The  making  of  a  natural  park  is  not  unlike  the  work  of  plan- 
ning the  home  grounds.  The  principles  are  the  same.  While  it  is 
true  that  most  natural  parks  are  larger  than  the  ordinary  home 
ground,  the  element  of  size  is  not  such  an  important  factor  after 
all.  The  modest  home  ground  is  considered  a  unit  while  the  large 
natural  park  is  usually  a  collection  of  units,  each  one  of  which  may 
be  developed  along  much  the  same  line  as  suggested  for  the  country 
home.  It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  a  well-planned 
natural  park  lacks  unity,  although  this  is  the  prevailing  weakness 
of  many  parks. 

Many  cities  have  made  the  great  mistake  in  creating  formal 
parks  when  they  might  just  as  well  have  had  natural  ones.  The 
chief  function  of  a  park  is  to  furnish  rest  and  recreation  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city.  Those  who  live  in  the  smaller  cities  may 
readily  avail  themselves  of  the  refreshing  rural  scenery  which  is 
the  best  antidote  for  the  wearing  influences  of  city  life.  To  the 
residents  of  the  larger  cities  the  rural  scenery  is  inaccessible.  The 
city  that  best  serves  its  inhabitants  from  the  standpoint  of  parks 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  89 

is  the  one  that  furnishes  a  good  supply  of  rural  scenery  Avithin 
its  limits. 

The  Artificial  Style  —  With  small  areas  it  is  difficult  to  follow 
the  natural  style,  except  at  a  great  loss  of  space.  The  artificial 
style,  therefore,  is  followed  usually  on  the  small  city  square  or 
"green/^  In  these  the  walks  follow  straight  lines  and  the  trees 
are  usually  disposed  in  such  a  way  as  to  shade  the  walks  and  to 
contribute  beauty  to  the  surroundings.  The  arrangement  of  trees 
along  the  walks  should  be  much  the  same  as  suggested  for  street 
planting.  Furthermore,  the  varieties  best  suited  to  this  purpose,  as 
a  rule,  are  those  that  are  generally  recommended  for  city  streets. 

Since  the  trees  in  the  "green"  are  usually  grown  under  more  fa- 
vorable conditions  than  those  on  the  street,  it  is  possible  to  select 
varieties  that  are  somewhat  more  exacting  in  their  requirements. 
Some  of  the  varieties  that  are  especially  valuable  for  their  showy 
flowers  or  for  their  attractive  autumn  foliage  may  be  used.  A 
common  error  in  the  planting  of  formal  parks  is  the  tendency  to 
scatter  the  trees  evenly  over  the  whole  area,  producing  the  "nur- 
sery" effect.  In  order  to  show  the  individual  beauty  of  the  trees 
and  to  furnish  sufficient  light  for  the  growth  of  shrubs  and  herba- 
ceous plants,  a  few  open  areas  should  be  maintained. 

PLANTING   SUGGESTIONS   FOR  CITY   HOMES 

Types  of  City  Homes  —  The  main  factor  to  be  considered  in  the 
preparation  of  planting  plans  for  the  city  lot  is  the  size.  For 
convenience  in  this  discussion  it  seems  advisable  then  to  classify 
city  homes  according  to  their  dimensions.  In  the  first  place  there 
are  the  pretentious  homes  of  the  men  of  wealth  where  the  grounds 
occupy  from  half  an  acre  to  several  acres.  On  such  places  the 
planting  need  not  be  unlike  that  recommended  for  country  homes. 
Sometimes  the  owners  of  such  homes  prefer  to  adopt  the  formal 
or  artificial  style,  but  in  most  cases  the  demand  is  for  the  natural 
style,  and  in  such  cases  the  object  is  to  imitate  rural  conditions  and 
as  much  as  possible  to  exclude  the  urban  scenery. 

Secondly,  there  is  the  common  suburban  home  with  its  detached 
house  and  its  small  front  and  back  yards.  This  is  the  type  of 
home  usually  found  on  the  residential  streets  of  the  smaller  cities 
and  in  the  popular  suburbs  of  the  larger  cities.  The  people  who 
occupy  such  homes  are  frequently  owners  and  are  anxious  to  make 
their  homes  as  comfortable  and  attractive  as  possible. 


90 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


The  third  type  of  city  home  is  the  one  which  consists  of  a  house 
in  a  solid  row  of  similar  units  and  which  is  so  near  the  street  that 
there  is  no  room  for  planting.  Such  homes  are  dependent  upon 
the  street  trees  for  shade.  Some  of  them,  however,  have  some 
room  in  the  rear  where  planting  may  be  done  to  good  advantage. 

There  are  all  gradations  between  these  three  groups  and  there 
are  probably  many  other  types  of  city  homes  that  cannot  well  be 
classified.     The  planting  for  the  first  group   of  homes  has  been 


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Fig-.   32.     A  planting-  plan  for  a  small  suburban  home  after  Kirkegaard. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  91 

PLANTING  LIST   FOR   PLAN   NUMBER   ONE 
List      No.   of 
No.       Plants. 

1  290  Berberis    Thunbergii.      Japanese    Barberries.      Or    Ligustrum 

ovalifolium.     California  Privets  to  be  planted  I  foot  apart. 

2  9  Poinihis  nigra  var,  italica.      Lombardy   Poplars. 

3  25  Althaea  Rosea.     Hollyhocks,   to  be  planted   1   foot   apart. 

4  4  Vines  as  Follows: — 

1  Lonicera   japonica   var.      Halliana.      Hall's   Honeysuckle. 
1   Clematis    paniculata.      Panicle-flowered    Clematis. 
1   Ampelopsis  quinquefolia.     Virginia  Creeper. 
1  Lycium  halimifolium.     Matrimony  Vine. 

5  7  Vines  as  Follows  : — 

1    Wistaria  chinensis.     Chinese  Wistaria. 

1   Tecoma  radicans.     Trumpet  Honeysuckle. 

1   Clematis  Jackmanni.     Jackman's  Hybrid  Clematis. 

1  Actinidia  polygama.     Japanese  Actinida. 

1   Dorothy  Perkins  Rose. 

1   Crimson  Rambler  Rose. 

1  Aristolocliia  macrophylla.     Dutchman's  Pipe. 

6  2  Early  Ripening-  Grapes. 

7  8  Spiraea  bumalda,  var.  A.  Waterer.  Anthony  Waterer  Spiraea. 

8  6  Cydonia  japonica.     Japanese  Quince. 

P  5  Hydrangea  paniculata.      Fall-flowering  Hydrangea, 

lb  5  Lespedeza  bicolor.     Bush  Clover. 

11  7  Forsythia  suspensa  var.  fortunei.     Drooping  Golden  Bell. 

12  6  Kerria   japonica.      Shrubby   Globe-flower. 

13  5  Rosa  rugosa.     Japanese  Rose. 

14  7  Spiraea   Thunbergii.     Thunberg's  Spiraea. 

15  7  Stephanandra  flexuosa.     Stephanandra. 
13  5  Rosa  rugosa.     Japanese  Rose. 

17  8  Hydrangea  paniculata  var.  glandiflora.     Large-flowered  Fall 

Hydrangea. 

18  5  Calycanthus  floridus.     Carolina  Allspice. 

19  6  Lonicera  tatarica.     Tartarian  Honeysuckle. 

20  7  Elaegnus  longipes.     Oleaster. 

21  5  Diervilla  florida.     Weigelia. 

22  7  Prunus  japonica.     Flowering  Almond. 

23  4  Myrica  cerifera.     Bay-berry. 

24  5  Rosa  rugosa  var.  alba.     White  Japanese  Rose. 

25  10  Amorpha  fruticosa.     False  Indigo. 

26  9  Philadelphus   Coronarius.      Sweet-scented  Syringa. 

27  8  Syringa    vulgaris    and    persica.      Various    varieties.      Mixed 

Lilacs. 

28  4  Spiraea  japonica  var.  alba.  White-flowered  Japanese  Spiraea. 

29  8  Viburmitn  opulus.     Mountain  Cranberry. 

30  6  Spiraea  prunifolium.     Bridal  Wreath. 

31  6  Spiraea  bracteata.     Round-leaved  Spiraea. 

32  6  Savibucus  nigra  var.  aurea.     Golden-Leaved  Elder. 

33  4  Ribes  alpinum.     Alpine  or  Mountain   Currant, 

34  5  Euonymus  alatus.     Winged  Burning-bush. 

35  3  Spiraea  Thunbergii.     Thunberg's  Spiraea. 

36  5  Acanthopanax  pentaphylla.      Five-leaved   Aralia. 

37  5  Acanthopanax  pentaphylla.     Five-leaved  Aralia. 

38  6  Prairie   Roses. 

39  6  Forsythia  suspensa.     Drooping  Golden  Bell. 

40  5  Viburnum  tomentosum  var.  plicatum.     Japanese  Snowball. 

41  8  Rhodotypus  kerrioides.     White  Kerria. 

42  7  Deutzia  scabra  crenata.     Roughed-leaved   Deutzia. 

43  6  Rhus  cotinus.     Smoke-bush. 

44  5  Chionanthus  virginica.     White  Fringe. 

45  6  Cornus  alba.     Red-barked  Ozier. 

46  1  Catalpa  speciosa.     Southern  Catalpa. 

47  1  Picea  alba.     White  Spruce. 

48  1  Apple  Tree. 

49  1  Picea  pungens.     Blue  Spruce. 

50  1  Fagus  sylvatica  var.  purpurea  Riversi.    Rivers'  Purple  Beech. 

51  1  Betula  alba  var.  pendula  laciniata.     Cut-leaved  Birch. 

52  36  Best  Hybrid  Perpetual  Roses. 

53  6  Hardy  Asters. 

54  5  Achillae  ptarmica  var.     The  Pearl. 

55  6  Coreopsis  lanceolata.     Lanced-leaved  Tickseed. 

56  8  Sedum  spectabile.     Showy  Sedum. 

57  8  Scarlet  Phlox  paniculata.     Panicled  Hardy  Phlox. 

58  5  Delphiniums.     A^arious  species.     Perennial  Larkspurs. 

59  6  Paeonia  officinalis.     Paeonias. 

60  6  White  Phlox  paniculata. 

61  5  Veronica  longifolia  var.  subsessilis.      Speedwell. 

62  8  Chrysantheum  Iwucanthemum  var.  hybrida.     Shasta  Daisies. 

63  6  Aquilegia  chrysantha  and  various  species  of  tall  Columbmes. 

Tall  Columbines. 

Tulips,  Narcissuses.  Hyacinths,  Scillas  and  Snowdrops  may 
be  planted  among  shrubs  and  near  edge  of  beds. 


92  TREES  IX  WINTER 

discussed  under  the  head  of  Eural  Homes.  The  planting  for  the 
second  group  will  he  discussed  under  the  head  of  The  Suhurhan 
Lot,  and  that  for  the  third  group  under  the  head  of  Back  Yard 
Planting. 

The  Suhurhan  Lot  —  The  size  and  shape  of  city  and  suburban 
lots  varies  so  greatly  that  it  is  difficult  to  generalize  on  matters 
pertaining  to  its  planting.  A  large  proportion  of  them,  however, 
are  about  50  x  100  feet,  and  have  the  house  located  in  the  center. 
On  a  lot  of  this  size  it  is  not  easy  to  follow  any  particular  style. 
Since  prevailing  custom  is  the  rule  in  matters  of  dress  and  since 
trees  and  shrubs  may  be  regarded  as  the  garb  with  which  we  clothe 
our  homes,  it  seems  safe  to  take  custom  as  our  guide  in  the  matter 
of  home  planting. 

The  main  objects  of  planting,  of  course,  are  to  furnish  protection 
from  the  sun,  to  soften  the  harsh  lines  of  the  buildings, 
and  to  furnish  ornament.  The  planting  necessarily  must  be 
simple,  and  matters  of  convenience  and  sanitation  should  overrule 
considerations  of  beauty.  Where  trees  are  planted  along  the 
street  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  will  be  room  for  any  on  the 
lawn.  Probably  a  single  specimen  of  a  small-growing  variety 
may  be  admitted.  A  white  or  gray  birch  may  often  be  so  located 
that  it  will  give  diversity  to  the  sky-line  and  relieve  the  harsh 
lines  of  the  buildings. 

On  larger  lots,  two  or  three  trees  may  be  planted,  but  these 
should  be  located  in  the  extreme  corners.  For  sanitary  rea- 
sons, also,  there  should  be  no  large  trees  planted  so  near  the  house 
as  to  prevent  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  the  admission  of  sun- 
light. The  most  common  mistake  is  in  getting  too  many  trees  around 
the  house.  Evergreens  especially  should  be  avoided,  except  on  very 
large  places.  They  produce  a  shut-in  effect  that  is  objectionable 
on  small  places. 

The  dweller  in  the  small  city  or  in  the  suburbs  of  the  large 
city,  therefore,  must  depend  largely  upon  shrubs  and  herbaceous 
plants  for  his  home  ornamentation.  These  are  usually  grouped 
in  borders  along  the  boundaries  and  around  the  buildings.  Small 
clumps  are  often  used  also  in  the  curves  and  junctures  of  the 
walks.  Occasionally  a  single  specimen  or  a  group  may  be  located 
in  the  open  lawn,  but  as  a  rule  an  unbroken  greensward  will  pro- 
duce more  pleasing  results.      When  the  house  is  located  at  one  side 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  93 

of  the  lot  an  open  space  may  be  left  along  the  other  side,  connecting 
the  front  and  back  3'ards,  and  in  this  way  giving  the  expression 
of  expanse. 

Back  Yard  Planting  —  By  the  planting  of  a  few  shrubs  or  small 
growing  trees  the  back  yard  may  easily  be  transformed  from  a  re- 
pository for  all  kinds  of  rubbish  to  a  beautiful  secluded  spot  where 
the  family  may  obtain  much  enjoyment.  The  back  yard  of  the 
common  city  residence  is  usually  a  piece  of  ground  measuring  not 
more  than  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  each  direction  and  is  oftentimes 
much  smaller.  It  is  generally  surrounded  by  a  high  board  fence. 
In  an  enclosure  of  this  kind  it  is  well  to  form  a  border  of  shrub- 
bery around  the  whole  area  and  preserve  an  open  center.  (See  fig. 
33).  The  unsightly  fence  may  be  covered  by  the  use  of  climbers 
or  tall-growing  shrubs.  Grape  vines,  Easpberry  and  Blackberry 
bushes  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  These  often  thrive  better  in 
shaded  locations  than  the  purely  ornamental  vines  and  hsrubs.  If 
preferred  some  of  the  ornamentals,  like  Virginia  Creeper,  Dutch- 
man's Pipe,  Philadelphus,  Wegelia,  and  Spirea,  may  be  used.  A 
space  of  three  or  four  feet  in  front  of  the  shrubs  may  be  devoted 
to  herbaceous  perennials  or  annuals. 

The  number  of  trees  in  a  back  yard  necessarily  must  be  small. 
As  a  rule  where  other  plants  must  be  grown  there  is  not  room 
for  more  than  one  tree,  and  this  should  not  be  especially  large.  It 
should  be  located  in  the  most  convenient  place  to  furnish  shade,  but 
should  not  be  too  near  the  house.  For  this  purpose  there  is  prob- 
ably nothing  better  than  the  pear  or  the  apple.  There  are  longer- 
lived  species,  but,  under  favorable  conditions,  they  may  be  expected 
to  attain  an  age  of  at  least  one  hundred  years.  With  a  little  care 
in  the  way  of  pruning  and  spraying,  a  single  apple  tree  may  be  ex- 
pected to  furnish  all  the  apples  the  ordinary  family  can  use  during 
the  winter.  For  the  sake  of  giving  greater  variety  and  to  furnish 
fruit  over  a  wider  period,  the  tree  may  be  grafted  to  two  or  more 
varieties.  Cherry  trees,  although  shorter  lived,  are  also  very 
useful  for  back-yard  planting. 

Some  species,  like  the  Red  and  Norway  Maple  or  the  Pin  and 
Chestnut  Oaks,  are  not  so  likely  to  be  affected  by  insects  and  dis- 
ease, and  for  this  reason  are  generally  preferred,  especially  when  the 
trees  are  not  likely  to  receive  the  proper  attention.    AMiere  no  slirubs 


94 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


tiOU^E. 


>l 


z< 


PLA/M   /MO- 3 

^ugged'/ve  Treatment  cf  City  DackyarA 


6cale> 


J>')';L'ia   '    '    '   i 


jU 


12.  Fed- 


Fig-.   33.   Sug-g-estive  planting  plan  for  a  city  back  yard  after  Kirkegaard. 
PLANTING  LIST   FOR  PLAN  NUMBER   THREE 


Wistaria   tnultijuga.     Loose-clustered   Wistaria. 
Tecoma  radicans.     Trumpet  Honeysuckle. 
Junijjerus  communis  var.   hihernica.      Irish  Juniper. 
Berberis   Thunbergii.      Japanese   Barberry. 
Ligustrum  ovalifolium.      California   Privets. 
Phlox  paniculata.     In  variety.     Perennial  Phlox. 
Rhododendron     catawbiense     hybridum.       Hybrid     Rhododen- 
drons. 
Euonymus   europaeus.      Strawberry  Tree. 
Forsythia  suspensa  var.  fortunei.     Fortune's  Golden  Bell. 
Coreopsis  lanceolata.     Tickseed. 
Iris  germanica.     German  Iris  in  variety. 
Rosa  rugosa.     Japanese  Rose. 
Kalmia  latifolia.      Mountain  Laurel. 
Viburnum  opulus.     Mountain  Cranberry, 
Symphoricarpos  racemosus.      Snowberry. 
Paecnia  officinalis.     In  variety.     Garden  Paeonies. 
Kerria  japonica.      Globe-flower. 
Popxilus  nigra  var.  italica.     Lombardy  Poplar. 


List 

No.  of 

No. 

Plants. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 

2 

4 

3 

5 

4 

6 

6 

7 

3 

8 

3 

9 

3 

10 

6 

11 

15 

12 

3 

13 

3 

14 

3 

15 
16 
17 
18 

4 
5 
3 
4 

PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  95 

or  other  plants  are  grown,  the  number  of  trees  in  the  back  yard 
sometimes  may  be  increased,  but  they  should  not  be  planted  so 
closely  that  they  will  interfere  with  one  another's  natural  develop- 
ment and  prevent  the  growth  of  grass. 


96  TREES  IN  WINTER 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  SELECTION  OF  TREES  FOR  SPECIAL  PURPOSES. 

As  has  been  shown  in  previous  chapters,  there  are  many  factors 
that  determine  the  choice  of  species.  The  fundamental  question 
to  be  decided  is  whether  a  particular  type  of  tree  is  suited  to  the 
purpose  from  the  esthetic  standpoint.  Usually  the  choice  of  species 
for  the  production  of  a  given  effect  is  subject  to  a  wide  range.  Af- 
ter considering  all  of  the  forms  that  seem  to  answer  the  purpose 
in  an  ornamental  way,  it  is  wtII  in  the  final  selection  to  choose  those 
having  few  objectionable  features. 

Some  species  are  better  adapted  to  a  certain  set  of  conditions 
than  others,  and  certain  conditions  beyond  our  control  often  restrict 
the  selection  of  species  to  a  very  narrow  range.  Some  trees  wdll  not 
grow  on  dry  soil,  others  fail  to  thrive  on  wet  soil.  Some  fail  to 
develop  properly  unless  there  is  an  abundance  of  lime  in  the  soil, 
and  others  fail  on  calcarous  soils.  Some  cannot  stand  the  smoke 
and  gas  common  to  city  streets.  Some  require  plenty  of  sun  while 
others,  to  reach  their  highest  degree  of  perfection,  must  be  some- 
what protected  from  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun.  Some  w^ill  not  stand 
the  seashore  climate  and  others  will  fail  at  high  altitudes. 

The  relative  susceptibility  of  species  to  insect  and  fungus  attack 
is  a  subject  too  often  overlooked.  Certain  species,  like  the  White 
or  American  Elm,  are  well  adapted  to  ornamental  planting,  for 
both  city  and  country,  but  cannot  be  recommended  except  for 
places  w^here  they  are  likely  to  be  taken  care  of.  And  again  there 
are  some  species  that  have  many  desirable  qualities  and  yet  are  ob- 
jectionable in  one  or  more  respects.  The  Horse-chestnut,  for 
example,  is  an  attractive  and  eifective  shade  tree,  but  it  is  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  litter  it  produces  on  the  ground.  The 
Silver  Maple  is  attractive,  graceful,  and  quick-growing,  but  it  is 
short-lived  and  easily  broken  by  wind  and  ice.  The  sex  of  trees  is 
an  important  consideration  in  some  cases.  For  example,  the 
pistilate  or  female  Carolina  Poplar  is  very  objectionale  on  account 
of  its  cottony  seeds  that  literally  fill  the  surrounding  atmosphere  and 
attach  themselves  to  buildings,  to  other  trees,  and  to  people's  cloth- 
ing. The  male  trees  of  the  Ailanthus,  also,  are  exceedingly  objec- 
tionable on  account  of  the  odor  produced  by  the  staminate  flowers. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


97 


The  following  lists  are  furnished  with  the  hope  that  they  may  he 
of  service  in  the  selection  of  species  for  special  purposes  and  condi- 
tions. They  have  heen  modified  after  Rehder\  and  Fernow^ 
They  are  not  intended  to  be  complete,  but  are  fairly  reliable  for 
northeastern  conditions.  The  common  names  are  used,  but  their 
corresponding  botanic  name  generally  may  be  obtained  by  referring 

to  Part  II. 

TREES  WITH  SHOWY  FLOWERS. 
BLOOMING    BEFORE    OR    WITH    THE    LEAVES, 

Apple  (fls.  white  or  pinkish). 
Cherries,  several  species  (fls.  white). 
Flowering  Dogwood  (fls.  white). 
Peach  (fls.  pinl^). 
Plums,  several  species  (fls.  white). 
Eed  Bud  (fls.  rosy  pink). 
Red  Maple  (fls.  blood  red)  . 
Shad  Bush  (fls.  white). 
AYillow  (fls.  yellow). 

BLOOMING    AFTER    THE    LEAVES. 

Basswood  (fls.  white). 

Catalpa  (fls.  white  or  yellow). 

Chestnut  (fls.  white  or  yellowish,  blooms  in  July). 

Common  Locust  (fls.  white  or  light  pink). 

Cucumber  Tree  (fls.  yellow)  and  other  Magnolias. 

Hawthorn  (fls.  white). 

Horse-chestnut  (fls.  white  or  red). 

Mountain  Ash  (fls.  white). 

Tulip  Tree  (fls.  yellow). 

Yellow  Wood  (fls.  white). 

TREES  WITH  SHOWY  FRUITS. 

Apple  (fr.  red  or  yellow). 
Ailanthus  var.  erythrocarpa  (fr.  red). 
Cherries  (fr.  red,  black  or  yellow). 
Flowering  Dogwood  (fr.  scarlet). 
Hawthorns  (fr.  red  or  yellow). 
Holly  (fr.  red). 
IMountain  Ash  (fr.  red). 

l_Rehder.   Alfred,   in   Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of   American  Horticulture,   IV. 
pp.   1835-6,   1906.  ^  ^^,   -_-     ,„,. 

2 Fernow,  B.  E.,  The  Care  of  Trees,  pp.  364-373,  1911. 


98  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Plums  (fr.  red,  dark  blue,  or  yellow). 
Hed  Maple  (fr.  red  in  May  and  June). 
Sassafras  (fr.  dark  blue). 
Magnolias  (fr.  pink). 

TREES  WITH  STRIKINGLY  COLORED  FOLIAGE. 

Beech,  var.  purpurea  (Ivs.  purple). 

Blue  Spruce  (Ivs.  silvery  or  bluish  white). 

Box  Elder,  var.  argenteo-variegahwi  (Ivs.  white  and  green). 

Carolina  Poplar,  va.  aurea  (Ivs.  yellow). 

Norway  Maple  (Ivs.  light  or  yellowish  green  in  early  spring)  var. 
Reitenbachi  (Ivs.  becoming  dark  red  in  summer)  ;  var.  Scliwed- 
leri  (Ivs.  bright  red  in  spring). 

Silver  Poplar,  (Ivs.  white  beneath)  var.  nivea  (especially  conspicu- 
ous. 

Sycamore  Maple,  var.  Worleei  (Ivs.  yellowish). 

White  Birch  (Ivs.  light  green)  ;  var.  purpurea  (Ivs.  purple). 

White  Fir,  Ahies  concolor  (Ivs.  silvery  or  bluish-white). 

White  Willow,  var.  argentea  (Ivs.  silvery  white). 

TREES    WITH    BRILLIANT    AUTUMNAL    TINTS. 

Black  Oak  (scarlet). 

Flowering  Dogwood  (scarlet). 

Ginkgo  (yellow). 

Hawthorn  (scarlet  and  orange). 

Pin  Oak  (scarlet). 

Red  Oak  (dull  red). 

Red  Maple  (scarlet). 

Sassafras  (red  and  yellow). 

Scarlet  Oak  (scarlet). 

Shad  Bush  (red). 

Sugar  Maple  (scarlet  and  orange). 

Sumachs  (bright  scarlet). 

Sweet  Gum  (red). 

Tupelo   (scarlet). 

White  Ash  (yellow  and  purple). 

White  Birch  (yellow). 

White  Oak  (purplish). 

DECIDUOUS   TREES   VALUED   FOR   THEIR   WINTER   EFFECTS. 

Beech  (steel-gray  bark;  frequently  retains  its  leaves). 
Box  Elder  (light  green  and  purplish  branches). 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 

Bur  Oak  (corky  branches). 

Cork  Elm  (corky  branches). 

Gray  Birch  (grayish  white  bark). 

Hawthorn   (Crategus  viridis  and  some  others,  red  fruit), 

Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  (picturesque,  nude  branches). 

Liquidambar  (corky  branches). 

Mountain  Ash  (scarlet  fruit). 

Bed  Birch  (flaky  reddish-brown  bark). 

Sassafras  (green  twigs). 

Striped  Maple  (striped  bark). 

Sumachs' (scarlet  fruit). 

White  Birch  (silvery-white  bark). 

White  Oak  (retains  its  dead  leaves). 

Yellow  Birch  (silvery-yellow  flaky  bark). 

Yellow  Willow  (yellow  branches). 

VERY  TALL  TREES. 

Bald  Cypress.  Pin  Oak. 

Black  Oak.  Bed  Oak 

Black  Walnut.  Sycamore. 

Carolina  Poplar.  Tulip  Tree. 

Common  Locust.  White  Elm 

Honey  Locust.  White  Pine. 
Norway  Spruce. 

COLUMNAR  OR  NARROW  PYRAMIDAL  TREES. 

Arl)or  Vitae. 

Bald  Cypress. 

Black  Maple,  var.  monumcntale. 

Coast  White  Cedar. 

Firs   (most  species). 

Juniper,  var.  Suecica  and  pijramidalis. 

Larch. 

Lombardy  Poplar. 

Bed  Cedar. 

Silver  Poplar,  var.  Bolleana. 

Spruces    (most  species). 

Tulip  Tree,  var.  pyramidalis. 

WEEPING     TREES. 

Ash  (Fraxiniis  Excelsior^  var.  pendula). 
Basswood  (Tilia  petiolaris). 


100  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Beech  (Fagus  sijlvatica,  var.  pendula). 
Cherry  {Prunus  serotina,  var.  pendula). 
Elm  (Uhnus  scabra,  var.  pendula). 
Maple  {Acer  saccliarinum,  var.  TFien). 
Oak  {Quercus  pedunculata,  var.  pendida). 
Plum  (Primus  pendida). 
White  Birch  (Betula  alba,  var.  pendula). 
Willow  {Salix  Babylonica) . 

TREES  RESISTANT  TO  SMOKE. 

Ailanthus.  Horse-Chestnut. 

American  Hornbeam.  Linden 

Balsam  Poplar.  Maples  (most  species), 

Carolina  Poplar.  Shad  Bush. 

Flowering  Dogwood.  Sycamore. 

Hawthorns.  AYhite  Oak. 

Honey  Locust.  White  Elm. 

DESIRABLE    SHADE   AND    AVENUE    TREES. 

Black  Oak.  Red  Oak. 

Black  Walnut.  Scarlet  Oak. 

Chestnut.  Silver  Maple. 

Chestnut  Oak.  Sweet  Gum. 

Ginkgo.  Sycamore. 

Honey  Locust.  Sycamore  Maple. 

Horse-chestnut.  Tulip  Tree. 

Linden.  White  Elm. 

Norway  Maple.  AVhite  Oak 
Pin  Oak. 

TREES  FOR  SEASIDE  PLANTING 

Arbor  Vitae.  Sassafras. 

Ailanthus.  Scotch  Pine. 

Austrian  Pine.  Small-toothed  Aspen. 

Carolina  Poplar.  Tupelo. 

Common  Juniper.  White  Spruce. 

Pitch  Pine.  Yellow  Willow. 
Eed  Oak. 

TREES    FOR    DRY    SITUATIONS    AND    DRY    CLIMATES. 

Black  Oak.  Scarlet  Oak. 

Chestnut  Oak.  '  Scotch  Pine. 

Common  Juniper,  Shad  Bush. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES.  101 

Pitch  Pine  Smooth  Alder. 

Red  Cedar.  White  Birch. 

Red  Oak. 

TREES  BEST  ADAPTED  TO   WET   SOILS. 

Aklers.  Red  Birch. 

Bald  Cypress.  Red  Oak. 

Balsam  Fir.  Red  Maple. 

Black  Oak.  Silver  Maple. 

Black  Spruce.  Swamp  White  Oak. 

Coast  White  Cedar.  Sweet  Gum. 

Larch.  Sycamore. 

Linden.  Tupelo. 

Pin  Oak.  White  Birch. 

Pitch  Pine.  White  Spruce. 

Poplars  (most  species).  Willows  (most  species). 

TREES    BEST    SUITED    TO    CALCAREOUS    OR    LIMESTONE    SOILS. 

Austrian  Pine.  Larch. 

Beech.  Plums. 

Coast  White  Cedar.  Poplars   (most  species). 

Flowering  Dogwood.  Scotch  Pine. 

Hawthorns.  Shad  Bush. 

Juniper. 

VARIETIES  OF  FRUIT  TREES   FOR   HOME  PLANTING. 

Apples: — Yellow  Transparent^  Red  Astrachan,  Williams,  Olden- 
berg,  Gravenstein,  Chenango,  Wealthy,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse, 
Fall  Pippin,  Wagener,  Jonathan,  Sutton,  Tolman,  Grimes, 
King,  Hubbardston,  Northern  Spy,  Red  Canada,  Golden 
Russet,  Delicious,  Ontario,  Roxbury,  Baldwin. 

Pears: — Summer  Doyenne,  Giffard,  Bartlett,  Flemish  Beauty, 
Sheldon,  Seckel,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Lawrence,  Winter  Nelis. 

Quinces : — Orange,  Champion. 

Peaches: — Rivers,  Greensboro,  St.  John,  Carmen,  "^^ountain  Rose, 
Early  Crawford,  Crosby,  Champion,  Late  Crawford,  Elberta, 
Stevens,  Smock. 

Plums: — Red  June,  Abundance,  Burl)ank,  Bradshaw,  Imeprial 
Gage,  Lombard,  Yellow  Egg,  Reine  Claude. 

Cherries: — May  Duke,  Wood,  Knight,  Tartarian,  Hortense,  Mont- 
morency, Morello. 


102  TREES  IN  WINTER 


CHAPTER  VI 
HOW  TEEES  ARE  PLANTED. 

PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS. 

Ordering  Trees  —  It  is  always  well  to  procure  catalogues  from 
several  reputable  nursery  concerns.  Other  things  being  equal,  it 
is  advisable  to  order  trees  from  a  local  nursery.  The  so-called 
"tree  agent'  is  not  always  reliable  and,  for  this  reason,  best  results 
will  follow  the  practice  of  ordering  directly  from  the  nursery. 
Since  there  is  so  much  confusion  in  names  of  trees,  it  is  well  to 
make  sure  that  the  nurseryman  knows  what  trees  are  required. 
The  Latin  name  should  always  accompany  the  common  name. 
Even  then  there  is  danger  of  confusion,  and  to  be  absolutely 
sure  of  getting  the  required  species,  it  is  desirable  to  go  to  the 
nursery  and  personally  examine  the  trees. 

Nurserymen  carry  usually  two  or  more  grades  of  trees.  As 
a  rule  the  difference  between  first  and  second  grade  trees  is  in 
size  or  "caliper."  If  this  is  the  case  a  second  grade  tree  is 
likely  to  give  satisfactory  results.  It  may  be  a  little  later  in 
maturing,  but  since  a  small  tree  suffers  less  from  "shock"  in 
transplanting,  it  is  likely  to  catch  up  to  the  larger-sized  tree 
within  a  few  years.  It  is  not  advisable  to  buy  third  grade  or  "cull" 
trees  for  they  are  likely  to  be  weak  growers  or  ill-shaped  specimens. 
The  price  of  nursery  stock  will  depend  upon  the  grade  and  upon 
the  age  of  the  trees.  Where  quick  results  are  demanded  it  is 
advisable  to  buy  trees  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  or  those 
that  are  five  to  ten  years  of  age,  or  to  j^lant  mature  trees  as 
described  later. 

Where  trees  are  grown  on  the  place  they  may  be  moved  with 
large  balls  of  earth  attached  and  in  this  way  the  shock  and  risk 
of  moving  may  be  lessened. 

''Puddling"  and  ''Heeling  In"  —  Trees  come  from  the  nursery 
in  boxes  or  bundles.  To  prevent  them  from  drying  out  the  roots 
are  usually  packed  in  moist  straw  or  other  material.  If  they 
should  arrive  before  planting  time  the  roots  should  be  "puddled" 
and  the  trees  "heeled  in."  Puddling  consists  in  dipping  the  roots 
in  a  semi-liquid  mixture  of  clay  and  water.  This  forms  a  coating 
of  clay  over  the  roots  and  prevents  them  from  drying  out.  Heeling 
in  consists  in  digging  a  trench  from  one  to  two  feet  in  depth, 


I 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


103 


depending  upon  the  size  of  the  tree,  into  which  the  bundles  of 
trees  are  placed  and  their  roots  covered  with  soil.  In  order  to 
make  sure  of  having  the  trees  on  hand  at  planting  time,  it  is 


Fig-.   34,      Nursery    stock    "healed    in." 


sometimes  necessary  to  order  them  shipped  in  the  fall.  AATien 
they  arrive  they  may  be  heeled  in  until  ready  for  use  in  the 
spring. 

Prune  Before  Planting  —  In  the  process  of  digging,  no  matter 
how  carefully  done,  many  of  the  roots  are  sure  to  be  broken  off 
or  injured  in  some  way.  To  balance  up  for  this  loss  of  roots  the 
tree  should  have  its  top  greatly  reduced.  This  is  done  by  cutting 
out  superfluous  branches  and  by  heading  in  the  remainder.  This 
practive  is  not  necessary  nor  desirable  for  Evergreens.  Trees 
with  abundant  root  systems  will  not  need  to  be  headed  in 
so  severely  as  those  deficient  in  roots.  The  older  the  tree 
when  moved  the  greater  the  danger  in  losing  its  roots,  and 
the  greater  the  necessity  for  heading  in.  With  trees  not  more 
than  three  or  four  years  of  age,  the  removal  of  most  of  the  past 
season's  growth  will  be  sufficient,  but  with  older  trees  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  remove  two  or  more  years'  growth.  With  some  trees, 
like  the  Pin  Oak,  Ginkgo,  Poplars  and  Evergreens,  whose  peculiar 
beauty  is  dependent  upon  a  single  stem  or  central  leader,  it  is 
necessary  to  do  the  pruning  on  the  side  branches.  This  pruning 
and  heading-in  greatly  reduces  the  chances  of  failure  and  yet  does 
not  seriously  effect  the  rate  of  development.  The  more  severe  the 
pruning   the   greater   the   growth   during   the    first   few   seasons. 


104 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


It  is  therefore  better  to  ere  by  over  pruning  than  by  not  pruning 
enough. 


Fig-.   35.     A   fruit    tree    before   and    after   pruning,    showing-   proper 
treatment    preparatory   to   planting-. 

The  roots  also  will  require  some  pruning.  All  mangled  roots 
should  be  removed,  making  a  fresh,  smooth  cut.  Long,  sprawling 
roots  may  also  be  shortened  in  to  accommodate  a  smaller  hole. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


105 


Preparing  tlie  Ground  —  Too  much  cannot  be  said  will 


1  reo-ai-' 


to   the  necessity   for  making  the   tree    comfortable    in    its    new 


SPCCinCATIONS   rOR    PLANTING    STRCLT    TRLCS 

Bv  City  Forester  Cromie. 

New  Haven.  ConnecticuT. 

1912 


.Nursery  grown  frees   H 
inches  in  diameter,  with 
veil-developed  head  and 
fibrous  roots,  give  best 
results. 


Prune  hraTiches  to  checK  evap- 
oration durmq  the  first  year 


Lowest  branch   7  feet 
above  the  pavement 


'Galvanized  wire  guard.  6 
feet  hign.  6  mcties  m  aiam- 
eter,  half- mch  ■mesh. 


Clothesline,  covered  vitK 
rubber  nose,  inside  guard. 


"^Chestnut  stake.  2X  inches  m 
diameter    9  feet  long. 


,Uqht  mulch  oF  well  rotted  man- 
ure, covered  with  loaxa  t^ust 
not  touch  the  roots. 


-21 


^''-y^Open  space  m  sidewalk.  3t  feet 

^  -  _y'2^  wide,  6  feet  lonq.  to  allow  watering 
's- "^  :l^^  and  ferrillzinq.   If  necessary,  cover 
with  iron  qr^ing. 


Hole  3  feet  deep,  3  feet 
wide,  4- feet  long,  filled 
with  rich  loanv 


Protect  roots  from  drying  while  transplanting 

VorK  soil  among  roots  with  fingers-,  then  stamp  in  in  layers 

V/ater  frequently  during  first  two  summers. 


Fig.   36.     Diagramatic     specifications     for    tree     planting, 
followed  by   many  municipalities. 


A    scheme 


position.      Wherever   practicable,    the    ground    should   be    plowed 
deeply  and  subsoiled,  and  in  this  way  the  feeding  area  for  the 


106  TREES  IN  WINTER 

roots  will  be  enlarged.  In  low  places,  where  water  is  likely  to 
stand  during  wet  seasons,  it  will  be  necessary  to  underdrain,  for 
few  trees  will  thrive  in  wet  soil.  Tile  underdrains  should  be 
placed  about  four  feet  below  the  surface.  If  nearer  the  surface 
they  are  likely  to  be  stopped  up  by  the  roots  of  the  trees.  Where 
there  is  an  impervious  hard-pan  near  the  surface  it  may  be  broken 
up  by  the  use  of  dynamite. 

On  city  streets  it  is  usually  impracticable  to  plow,  except  when 
planting  newly-formed  streets  and  avenues.  AVhen  it  is  not 
practicable  to  break  up  the  whole  area  where  trees  are  to  be 
planted,  larger  holes  and  greater  care  in  their  preparation  will 
be  necessary. 

Most  soils  are  deficient  in  both  plant  food  and  vegetable  matter 
and  are  greatly  benefited  by  heavy  applications  of  stable  manure. 
Where  the  young  trees  are  widely  separated  it  is  well  to  restrict 
the  application  to  a  radius  of  about  six  feet  around  each  tree. 
It  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  up  with  the  soil.  On  city  streets 
where  the  application  must  be  restricted  to  a  small  area  the 
manure  is  usually  mixed  with  the  soil  that  is  placed  around  the 
roots  of  the  tree.  For  this  purpose  only  very  fine,  or  well-rotted, 
manure  should  be  used. 

Staking  the  Ground  —  The  setting  of  stakes  where  the  trees  are 
to  be  planted  is  recommended  for  most  kinds  of  plantations. 
Where  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  a  straight  line  along  a  roadside 
or  on  a  city  street,  the  problem  is  a  simple  one.  When  trees  are 
planted  for  definite  effects  about  the  home  or  in  parks,  the  work 
is  often  perplexing  and  the  correct  location  of  the  stakes  often 
necessitates  much  shifting.  A  stake  is  much  easier  shifted  than  a 
tree,  and  the  location  of  trees  may  be  decided  upon  before  the 
approach  of  the  planting  season. 

SETTING  THE  TREES 
Time  to  Plant  —  Spring  planting  usually  gives  better  results 
than  fall  planting,  although  with  care  trees  may  be  planted  in 
the  fall  with  much  assurance  of  their  surviving.  The  spring  is 
the  natural  growing  season  and  trees  planted  at  this  time 
commence  to  send  out  new  roots  immediately,  so  that  if  they  were 
somewhat  carelessly  planted  they  would  stand  a  better  show  than 
those  planted  in  the  fall  and  allowed  to  remain  over  winter  in  an 
unfavorable   condition.     If  it  is  desired  to  plant  in  the  fall  it 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


107 


is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  get  the  soil  well  packed  around 
the  roots  and  to  apply  on  the  surface  a  liberal  amount  of  stable 
manure  or  other  coarse  material  to  prevent  the  tree  from  being 
heaved  by  frost.  Those  trees  having  succulent  roots^  like  the 
magnolias,  should  always  be  planted  in  the  spring.  Spring  planting 
is  usually  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  warms  up  and  before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell. 

Making  the  Holes  and  Filling  In  —  Where  the  ground  has  been 
well  prepared,  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  the  holes  large  enough 
to  accommodate  the  root  system.  Where  it  is  impracticable  to 
cultivate  the  whole  area  where  trees  are  to  be  planted,  it  is  well 
to  dig  the  holes  much  broader  and  deeper  than  is  necessary  to 
accommodate  the  roots.  With  ordinary  sized  trees  the  holes  should 
be  about  two  feet  deep.  Before  setting  the  tree,  however,  the  hole 
should  be  partly  filled  with  surface   soil  with  which  some  well- 


A 


m 


Fig-.   37.     The    Planting--board.      A   useful   device   for   locating-   trees   in 
their   correct    positions. 


Fig.   38.     How  the  Planting--board  is  used. 


108  TKEES  IN  WINTER 

rotted  manure  has  been  mixed.  The  tree  should  be  set  at  just 
about  the  same  depth  at  which  it  grew  in  the  nursery.  The  roots 
are  spread  out  naturally  and  the  fine  surface  soil  thrown  or  sifted 
in  about  them.  Only  a  small  amount  of  soil  should  be  thrown 
in  at  a  time  and  it  should  be  well  tamped,  avoiding  any  open 
spaces  beneath  or  about  the  roots.  A  j)ointed  stake  will  be  found 
serviceable  in  tamping  the  soil  about  the  roots.  The  last  few 
shovels-full  should  be  thrown  loosely  about  the  tree  to  act  as  a 
mulch. 

^^Tiere  it  is  necessary  to  get  the  tree  in  the  exact  position 
where  the  stake  stood,  a  device  called  a  planting-board  will  be 
found  useful.  Such  a  contrivance  may  be  readily  made  from  a 
board,  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length,  by  making  a  notch  in  the 
center  and  a  hole  at  each  end,  as  shown  in  figure  37.  Before 
digging  the  hole  the  board  is  placed  on  the  ground  with  the  notch 
adjusted  to  the  stake  that  marks  the  position  of  the  tree.  A 
guide  stake  is  then  driven  in  the  ground  through  each  of  the  holes 
at  the  end  of  the  board.  The  board  may  then  be  removed  while 
the  hole  is  being  dug,  after  which  it  is  placed  back  on  the  guide 
stakes  and  the  tree  adjusted  to  the  notch  in  the  center. 

Moving  Large  Trees  —  The  demand  for  quick  results  in  tree 
planting  often  necessitates  the  moving  of  very  large  trees.  Trees 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  are  often  successfully 
moved.  Very  large  specimens  require  the  services  of  expert 
tree  movers,  who  have  the  proper  equipment  for  the  purpose. 
Frequently,  however,  it  is  desiral)le  to  go  to  a  neighboring  forest 
for  moderately-sized  trees  for  home  planting.  Trees  from  six  to 
eight  inches  in  diameter  may  be  moved  with  a  fair  degree  of 
certainty  and  without  an  elaborate  equipment.  Since  trees  grown 
in  the  open  are  usually  more  shapely  and  have  better  root  systems, 
they  are  likely  to  give  better  results  when  transplanted,  than 
forest-grown  trees. 

The  principles  involved  in  transplanting  large  trees  are  the 
same  as  for  small  trees,  but  the  work  is  performed  at  greater 
risk.    Experts,  however,  seldom  lose  a  tree. 

Where  trees  are  to  be  carried  short  distances  it  is  well  to 
preserve  a  large  ball  of  earth  around  the  roots.  If  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  roots  are  kept  intact,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
cut  back  the  top  so  severely.     Where  trees  must  be  transported 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


109 


long  distances  it  is  usually  necessary  to  wash  the  soil  from  the 
roots  and  to  carefully  wrap  the  latter  with  moist  straw  and  burlap. 
Most  trees  will  need  to  be  severely  headed-in  or  dehorned^,  but 
those  with  many  branches  may  be  safely  moved  after  being  severely 


Fig;.   :','J.     A  large   Evergreen  being  transplanted, 
earth   is  being  retained  on   the   roots. 


A  large   ball   of 


pruned  throughout  tlie  whole  top.  This  treatment  obviates  the 
necessity  for  changing  their  natural  habit.  Some  trees,  of  course, 
may  be  greatly  improved  in  form  by  a  severe  heading-in.  As 
in  the  planting  of  small  trees,  the  important  point  with  large 
trees  is  in  getting  the  soil  well  filled  in  and  packed  around  the 
roots  of  the  newly  set  tree.  By  directing  a  stream  of  water  about 
the  roots  the  soil  may  be  forced  well  under  the  base  of  the  tree. 


110 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Newly  set  trees  should  be  securely  guyed  for  at  least  one  season, 
or  until  their  roots  become  firmly  established  in  their  new 
position. 


''    \ 


wi      f 


Fig-.  40.  Transplanting  a  large  tree,  showing  the  method  of  binding 
up  the  roots,  when  it  is  necessary  to  transport  long  distances. 

Trees  with  an  abundance  of  small  roots  are  more  likely  to 
survive  the  process  of  transplanting.  The  species  that  are  more 
commonly  and  successfully  moved  are  the  Maples,  Elms,  White 
Ash,  Basswood,  Catalpa,  Horse-chestnut,  Pin  Oak,  Poplars,  and 
Willows.  Trees  with  tap  roots  and  few  fibrous  roots,  like  the 
Hickories  and  most  Oaks,  are  moved  with  less  certanity.  The  very 
soft  and  tender  rooted  trees,  like  the  Tulip  and  the  Magnolias,  are 
also  difficult  to  move  without  loss. 

STAKING  AND  GUARDING  YOUNG  TREES 
Newly-set  trees  are  likely  to  become  ill-shaped  and  badly  damaged 
if  not  properly  supported  and  guarded  during  the  first  few  years 
of  their  life.  This  applies  especially  to  street  trees,  but  lawn  trees, 
although  they  many  not  require  guards,  should  be  supported  in 
some  simple  and  inconspicuous  manner. 

Stakes  —  A  single  stake,  painted  green,  and  long  enough  to 
reach  almost  to  the  top  of  the  tree  and  to  extend  into  the  ground 
at  least  two  feet  is  the  simplest  method  of  supporting  young 
trees.  It  is  made  pointed  at  the  lower  end  and,  after  a 
hole  is  made  with  a  crowbar,  it  is  driven  into  position.    Sometimes 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


111 


two  Stakes  are  used,  one  on  each  side  of  the  tree,  but  there  is 
no  special  need  for  this  additional  expense.  (See  fig.  41)  A 
common  method  of  attaching  the  tree  to  the  stake,  which  should  be 
done  at  two  or  three  places,  is  by  means  of  a  manila  rope  run 


Fig.  41.     A  simple  and  effective  method  of  staking  and  guarding 
young  trees. 

through  a  piece  of  rubber  hose.  This  ;.  tied  around  the  tree, 
using  an  ordinary  double  knot,  and  then  the  ends  are  tied  aiound 
the  stake.     The' knot  between  the     ree  a  .d  the   stake  prevents 


112  TREES  IN  WINTER 

chafing.  This  is  all  the  protection  needed  for  trees  on  the  lawn 
or  in  positions  along  the  street  and  roadside  where  there  is  little 
danger  of  injury  from  passing  vehicles  and  thoughtless  people. 

Guards  —  Street  trees^  being  subject  to  various  forms  of  injury, 
require  guarding  as  well  as  supporting  and  for  this  purpose  a 
combination  tree-guard  and  su23port  has  been  successfully  used  in 
Washington  and  other  cities.  These  are  four-sided  wooden  boxes 
attached  to  four  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The  trees  are  held 
firmly  in  the  center  of  the  box  by  means  of  leather  straps  attached 
to  the  corners.  Although  cumbersome  and  unsightly  in  appear- 
ance, they  are  very  effective  and  remain  in  position  for  several 
years. 

A  simple  and  inexpensive  guard  may  be  made  of  heavy  wire 
mesh  and  used  in  combination  with  the  single  stake.  The  cylinder 
of  wire  should  be  about  six  feet  high  and  should  be  attached  to 
the  stake.  Wire  cloth  made  of  number  16  wire  and  with  one- 
inch  meshes  comes  in  rolls  twenty  inches  wide.  Twenty  inches 
is  just  about  the  right  width  to  encircle  the  tree  and  the  cloth, 
therefore,  may  be  cut  in  six-foot  lengths.  The  upper  edge  of  the 
cylinder  may  be  bound  with"  a  piece  of  rubber  hose  to  prevent 
chafing.  There  are  many  types  of  iron  guards  on  the  market,  but 
they  are  quite  expensive  and  are  of  very  little  support  to  the 
tree  unless  they  are  set  deeply  into  the  soil.  They  are  commonly 
used  in  connection  with  grills,  where  they  are  very  useful.  They 
are  less  conspicuous  and  take  up  less  room  than  the  wooden  box. 

Grills  —  Where  trees  are  set  in  openings  in  the  pavement  or 
sidewalk,  the  space  around  the  base  of  each  tree  is  often  covered 
with  iron  grating  to  prevent  the  soil  from  becoming  packed  so 
hard  as  to  make  it  impervious  to  water.     Such  devices,  of  which 


Fig-.   42.     A    g-ood    type    of    Gri] 


there  are  many  styles,  are  known  as  grills.     They  are  usually  cast 
in  sections  and  are  adjusted  so  as  to  come  flush  with  the  side- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  113 

walk  They  are  supported  on  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  It  is 
to  leave  a  slight  depression  in  the  ground  under  the  grJl 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  sonie  of  the  water  that  may  run  mto  it. 
The  ar?h  ^mediately  around  the  tree,  however,  should  be  some- 
Slt  elevated  to  prevent  the  water  from  commg  m  contact  wrth 
the  trunk. 


114  TREES  IN  WINTER 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  CARE  OF  TREES. 

There  are  many  people  who  believe  that  a  tree  after  being 
properly  planted  requires  no  further  treatment.  While  <many  trees 
growing  wild  have  attained  a  perfect  development^,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  these  are  the  exceptions  and  that  many  of  their 
youthful  companions  either  have  died  or  have  been  seriously  affected 
in  form  and  vitality.  When  trees  become  well  established  and  are 
allowed  to  develop  under  normal  conditions  they  require  very 
little  attention.  On  the  other  hand,  yo^i'^g  trees  and  trees  growing 
under  abnormal  or  adverse  conditions  are  less  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves.  The  growing  of  trees  on  narrow  streets,  where  the 
ground  is  almost  completely  covered  with  pavement  and  where 
the  trees  are  smothered  with  smoke  and  poisoned  wdth  coal  gas, 
is  decidedly  an  abnormal  condition  and  it  is  a  wonder  that  there 
are  not  more  failures. 

IMPROVING  SOIL  CONDITIONS 

Tlie  Need  of  Humus  in  the  Soil  —  The  failure  of  trees  to  de- 
velop is  more  often  due  to  an  unfavorable  physical  condition  of  the 
soil  than  to  any  other  cause.  When  the  physical  condition  is  not 
right  the  tree  roots  cannot  develop  properly  and  the  tree  cannot 
get  an  adequate  supply  of  water.  Since  plant  food  must  be 
dissolved  in  water  before  the  tree  can  make  use  of  it,  a  shortage 
of  water  means  a  shortage  of  nutrition.  Moreover,  the  soil  must 
be  in  a  good,  physical  condition  for  the  development  of  certain 
useful  micro-organisms  and  to  facilitate  favorable  chemical  action. 
The  constituent  most  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  good  mechanical 
condition  and  the  one  most  commonly  deficient  is  humus,  or 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  In  nature  this  is  supplied  by  the  con- 
tinual decay  of  leaves  and  other  herbage  on  the  surface.  It  is 
not  practicable  in  our  streets  and  on  our  lawns  to  allow  the  leaves 
to  remain  where  they  fall  and  the  grass  to  develop  and  to  con- 
tribute vegetable  matter  when  it  dies.  When  lawns  are  made  and 
w^hen  new  streets  are  being  planted  it  is  a  feasible  thing  to  apply 
a  good  dressing  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  form  of  stable  manure 
or  other  coarse  material.  The  turning  under  of  a  good  crop 
of  herbage  is  the    easiest  way  to    increase  the  humus  content  of 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  ,  ll5 

the  soil.     In  farm  practice  it  is  a  common  thing  to  grow  a  crop 
of  clover,  rye,  or  buckwheat  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing  under. 

The  water-holding  capacity  of  a  soil  is  dependent  largely  upon 
its  humus  content.  Trees  growing  in  soil  that  is  well  supplied  with 
humus  are  not  likely  to  suffer  from  drought  during  dry  seasons. 
It  is  not  necessary  here  to  enumerate  the  many  other  functions 
of  humus  in  the  soil,  but  it  is  enough  to  say  that  it  should  be 
supplied  whenever  practicable. 

Fertilizers  for  Trees  —  Most  soils  contain  a  sufficient  supply  of 
the  various  elements  of  plant  food  —  nitrogen,  potash,  and 
phosphoric  acid  —  and  when  the  soil  is  in  a  good  mechanical  con- 
dition the  tree  is  able  to  obtain  without  difficulty  these  elements, 
and  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  make  additional  applications.  But 
since  the  soil  where  our  shade  trees  are  supposed  to  grow  is  not 
usually  in  a  suitable  mechanical  condition  and  since  it  is  often 
impracticable  to  improve  it  in  this  respect*  the  application  of 
chemical  fertilizers  often  proves  beneficial. 

Inasmuch  as  soils  differ  so  widely  with  regard  to  their  manurial 
requirements,  it  is  always  difficult  to  make  an}'  general  recommen- 
dations. The  following  formula  is  suggested  as  an  annual  dressing 
for  each  full  grown  tree.  A  very  large  tree  should  receive  a 
slightly  heavier  dressing  and  a  smaller  one  proportionately  less : — 
Nitrate  of  soda   (157c   nitrogen  or  its  equivalent)    G  pounds 

Muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash  (50%  potash)    6        " 

Acid  phosphate  (187^  phosphoric  acid)   8        " 

This  is  a  light  dressing  and  may  be  greatly  increased  without 
fear  or  injury.  The  three  compounds  may  be  mixed  together  and 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  extending  considerably 
beyond  the  spread  of  the  branches.  The  application  should  be 
made  in  the  spring,  just  as  the  leaves  are  appearing,  and  during 
a  heavy  rain,  or  just  before  watering  the  ground  from  a  hose. 
If  these  directions  are  followed  and  if  the  lumps  are  well  mashed 
there  will  be  no  injury  to  the  grass.  The  practice  of  spreading 
stable  manure  on  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  in  the  fall  and  in 
raking  it  off  in  the  spring,  is  a  connnendable  one,  but  many 
people  object  to  it  on  account  of  the  odor  and  appearance. 

Cultivation  —  Whenever  it  is  feasible,  the  ground  beneath  and 
around  the  trees  should  be  cultivated.  Cultivation  aeriates  the 
soil  and  increases  chemical  action,  making  more  plant  food  avail- 


116  TREES  IN  WINTER 

able.  It  also  assists  in  conserving  the  moisture  of  the  soil  by 
forming  a  loose  mulch  on  the  surface  that  lessens  evaporation. 
The  turf  around  the  trees  would  be  better  broken  up  every  few 
years  and  a  good  supply  of  vegetable  matte:"  added  before  reseeding. 
Such  a  practice,  however,  is  not  always  practicable,  but  where  the 
trees  are  located  along  borders,  it  may  be  followed  without  seri- 
ously affecting  the  appearance  of  the  surroundings. 

PRUNING   SHADE   TREES 

Trees  on  the  lawn  will  require  very  little  pruning,  the  work 
consisting  mainly  in  the  removal  of  dead  or  diseased  branches. 
Street  trees,  on  the  other  hand,  require  careful  training  to  insure 
a  symmetrical  development  and  to  prevent  their  branches  from 
interfering  with  the  traffic.  A  well-developed  street  tree  should 
have  a  compact  and  symmetrical  head  and  the  j^ranching  should 
commence  at  a  point  eigth  or  ten  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
beauty  in  a  row  of  street  trees  is  largely  dependent  upon 
uniformity  in  size  and  shape.  The  individual  trees,  there- 
fore, should  be  as  nearly  alike  as  possible.  Some  will  require 
encouraging  to  keep  them  up  to  the  average  in  size,  while  others 
will  need  to  be  cut  back  to  keep  them  down  to  the  average.  It 
should  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  pinining  while  the 
tree  is  dormant  stimulates  vegetative  growth  and  that  pruning 
during  the  growing  season  tends  to  counteract  an  excessive  growth. 

The  branching  should  start  at  the  same  height  on  each  tree. 
The  lower  branches  need  not  be  cut  off  until  they  begin  to  inter- 
fere with  traffic,  and  these  should  be  removed  gradually.  One 
or  two  of  the  lower  branches  may  be  removed  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  years  until  the  proper  height  is  reached.  The  base 
of  the  head  should  not  project  horizontal^,  but  should  ascend 
obliquely,  producing  an  arched  effect  and  giving  more  room  in  the 
center  of  the  street. 

How  to  Cut  Off  a  LifuJ)  —  AYhen  it  is  necessary  to  head  back 
branches,  the  cut  should  be  made  just  beyond  a  side  branch  that 
points  in  the  desired  direction.  Such  a  cut,  if  a  large  one, 
should  be  made  on  a  slant  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  moisture 
on  the  surface.  In  ordinary  pruning  a  whole  branch  is  removed, 
and  when  this  is  done  the  cut  is  made  close  to  the  parent  branch. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  preventing  the  branch  from 
splitting  down  during  the  process.     This  trouble  may  be  avoided 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  117 

by  cutting  about  half  way  through  the  branch  from  beneath  at  a 
point  marked  A  in  figure  43,  which  may  be  about  six  or  eight 
inches  beyond  the  junction.  The  final  cut  is  then  made  from 
above  and  close  to  the  parent  branch  as  shown  at  B  in  the 
diao-ram.  By  the  time  the  saw  reaches  the  center,  the  branch 
win  split  horizontally  at  X  and  drop  off,  when  the  cut  may  be  con- 


Fig,  43.  Diagram  to  illustrate  the  method  of  sawing  off  a  large  limb 
to  prevent  it  from  splitting  clown  the  trunk.  Cut  first  at  A  and  then  at 
B,  when  the  branch  should  split  along  the  dotted  line  X,  and  drop  off. 
If  the  limb  does  not  drop  off  when  the  second  cut  reached,  the  half-way 
point,  a  third  cut  should  be  made  at  the  point  D,  After  the  limb  has 
dropped  off  the   final  cut   may  be   made   through  to   C. 

tinned  through  to  C.  Sometimes  with  tough-wooded  trees  and  when 
there  is  a  large  shoulder  at  the  base,  the  branch  may  not  split 
readily  when  the  second  cut  reaches  the  half-way  point  or  the 
level  of  the  ending  of  the  first  cut.  In  such  cases  a  third  cut 
should  be  made  from  above  at  the  point  D,  just  beyond  the  first 
cut.  When  these  two  cuts  meet  on  the  same  level  the  limb  will 
drop  off,  when  the  final  cut  may  be  finished. 

All  cuts  should  be  made  smooth  and  close  to  the  parent  branch, 
which  forms  the  callus  to  heal  the  wound.  AYhen  there  is  a 
large  shoulder  at  the  base  of  the  limb  to  be  removed,  there  is 
always  a  temptation  to  make  the  cut  beyond  the  shoulder  and  at 
right-angles  with  the  branch.  Wounds  made  by  cutting  in  this 
direction,  although  much  smaller,   will  not  heal  over  as  readily 


118 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


as  those  made  by  cutting  parallel  with  and  close  to  the  parent 
branch.     (See  figs.  44,  45,  46,  and  47). 

Time  to  Prune  —  In  general,  pruning  should  be  done  while  the 
tree  is  dormant.  Most  people  prefer  to  prune  in  early  spring, 
believing  that  the  wounds  heal  over  better  when  made  just  before 
the  tree  starts  its  growth.    There  are  cases,  as  pointed  out  before, 


Fig-.  44.     A  cut   properly   made,    observe  that   the   wound   has   already 
commenced  to  heal. 


Fig.   45.     The  result  of  bad  Pruning. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


119 


where  certain  trees  may  be  making  too  much  growth,  and  where 
pruning  during  the  growing  season  is  recommended.  While  the 
practice  of  summer  pruning  is  useful  in  the  way  of  reducing 
vegetable  growth  and  in  encouraging  the  development  of  blossoms 
and  fruit,  it  tends  to  weaken  the  tree.  It  produces  the  same 
effect  as  a  partial   defoliation  by   insects.     Pruning   during   the 


Fig-.   46:     An  example  of  bad  Pruning.     Compare  with  Fig.  45. 


summer,  therefore,  always  should  be  sparingly  done.    It  is  practiced 
mostly  on  fruit  trees  to  encourage  fruit  development.     It  should 


120 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


be  remembered  that  the  buds  from  which  the  blossoms  and  fruit 
come  during  any  season  have  been  formed  during  the  previous  sum- 
mer. To  have  any  influence  upon  the  supply  of  blossoms  and  fruit 
for  the  following  year,  therefore,  the  pruning  should  be  done 
early  in  the  summer,  before  the  fruit  buds  are  formed.  With 
most  species  the  best  time  is  about  the  first  of  Julv.    The  removal 


Fig.  47.     An    example    of    good    Pruning.      The    cuts    have    been    made 
close  and  smooth  and  the  wounds  properly  dressed. 

of  foliage,  only,  will  produce  the  same  effect  as  removing  branches 
with  leaves  attached.  Since  trees  rarely  grow  too  rapidly  the 
practice  of  summer  pruning  is  seldom  necessary.  The  rule, 
however,  is  to  prune  in  winter  for  more  wood  growth  and  in 
summer  for  more  blossoms  and  fruit. 

Pruning  should  never  be  done  when  the  sap  is  moving  freely  in 


PLAXTIXG  AXD  CARE  OF  TREES 


121 


the  spring,  for  some  trees  are  likely  to  suffer  seriously  from  the 
loss  of  sap.  Should  any  dead  or  diseased  branches  be  observed 
during  the  summer  it  is  always  well,  for  the  sake  of  appearance,  to 
remove  them  immediately. 

Pruning  Tools  —  The  tools  actually  necessary  for  pruning  are 
few  in  number,  but  good  workmen  are  very  particular  with  regard 
to  the  character  of  their  tools.  There  are  saws  specially  designed 
for  the  purpose,  but  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  useless.  Some 
workmen  prefer  one  type  and  some  another.  A  small  but  very 
convenient  saw  is  shown  in  figure  48.  This  is  called  the  California 
Pruning  Saw  and  comes  in  three  sizes  based  upon  the  length  of 


Fig-.  48.     Pruning-    Tools.      A    14-inch    California    Pruning    Saw    and 
good   type   of  Pruning-   Shears. 


the  blade  as  follows :  12,  14  and  18-inch.  This  saw  is  too  small  for 
work  where  there  are  many  large  limbs  to  be  cut,  but  it  should 
be  included  in  every  pruner's  kit.  A  larger  saw  also  w^ill  be  neces- 
sary. A  saw  of  good  size  and  with  large  teeth,  known  as  Atkins' 
Universal  Saw,  No.  83,  is  a  favorite  with  many  people.  A  one- 
man  saw,  which  is  a  small  cross-cut  saw,  will  be  found  useful 
for  the  cutting  of  very  large  limbs. 

The  pruner  will  also  require  a  good  set  of  pruning  shears  like 
those  shown  in  figure  48.  These  are  especially  useful  in  pruning 
young  trees.  There  is  a  knack  in  using  hand  shears  that  when 
acquired  will  greatly  facilitate  their  use.  The  cutting  blade  should 
be  placed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  branch  so  that  the  weight  of 
the  latter  will  relieve  the  binding.  It  is  advisable  also  to  have  the 
non-cutting  blade  toward  the  side  to  be  removed  to  avoid  injuring 
the  part  that  is  to  remain. 

Long-handled  loppers  are  useful  in  "lopping''  off  the  ends  of 
branches.  These  are  similar  to  hand  shears  but  are  attached  to 
a  twelve  or  fifgteen-foot  pole.     The  shears  are  operated  by  the 


122  TREES  IN  WINTER 

use  of  a  long  rope  or  steel  rod  that  passes  tliroiigh  screw-eyes 
on  the  pole.  This  tool  may  also  be  used  as  a  hook  with  which 
to  pull  loose  branches  out  of  a  tree.     If  a  similar  instrument 


Fig.  49.     Four  types  of  "loppers"   from  which  the  handles  have  been 
removed   for   photographing. 

could  be  made  with  the  cutting  blade  working  from  above,  it 
would  be  a  decided  improvement.  Among  the  other  tools  and 
accessories  that  are  likely  to  prove  useful  may  be  mentioned,  a 
small  one-handed  axe;  a  piece  of  rope;  tree  climbers;  a  pruner's 
belt  for  the  carrying  of  tools  and  for  supporting  the  operator. 

Tahing  Car^e  of  the  Wounds  —  The  wounds  made  by  pruning 
must  be  protected  to  prevent  the  access  of  fungi.  ^  Small  wounds, 
or  those  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter  are  likely  to  heal  over 
before  danger  of  infection.  /  This  depends  largely  upon  the  species 
and  the  vigor  of  the  tree.'  The  wounds  of  Poplars  and  Willows 
heal  over  quickly,  while  those  of  the  White  Oak  or  Sugar  Maple 
heal  very  slowly.  ^  As  a  rule,  all  wounds  two  inches  or  more  in 
diameter  should  be  dressed  with  some  preparation./  "WTien  the 
pruning  is  done  in  the  fall  or  winter  the  dressing  should  be 
delayed  till  spring.  This  will  give  the  cut  surface  a  chance  to  dry 
out  and  the  wood  to  become  "checked.''  If  the  dressing  is  applied 
when  the  wood  is  in  such  condition  it  will  be  decidedly  more 
effective  in  sealing  up  the  cracks.  Thick  paint  made  from  white 
lead  and  raw  linseed  oil  will  answer  the  purpose.  A  little  green 
or  black  coloring  matter  may  be  added  to  make  the  wounds  less 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


123 


conspicuous.  Most  experts  use  coal  tar  for  dressing  wounds.  This 
material  makes  an  excellent  dressing,  but  occasional  samples 
containing  an  excess  of  creosote  or  carbolic  acid  have  caused 
serious  damage  to  the  living  bark  around  the  wounds.  When  care 
is  exercised  in  preventing  it  from  running  down  on  the  healthy 
bark,  it  may  be  safely  used. 

The  larger  wounds  will  require  later  applications  every  two  or 
three  years  unless  they  are  permanently  sealed  up  in  some  way. 
Wounds  six  inches  or  more  in  diameter  are  sometimes  covered 
with  zinc.  When  the  work  of  "tinning,"  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
is  properly  done  it  is  a  very  effective  means  of  taking  care  of 
large   wounds.     The  zinc  plates  should  be  cut  out  so   as  to  fit 


'tlMH| 

RHHI 

»'V^H 

^^^^1 

^^S^T^™ 

i£lit'"  ''^ 

^^^^^fti^ 

t£-:-  ^  ,  -^ 

mi 

n 

K^^H' 

5 

<.7^^W^^<9HH 

ft 

Ij 

mmm 

^m 

Hjl^^^^ 

Fig.  50.     The  failure  to  protect  the  woun,d  with  some  kind  of  dressing 
has   allowed   the   entrance    of   wood-destroying   fungi 


exactly  inside  of  the  cambium  layer  or  inner  bark.  It  is  applied 
immediately^ after  painting  and  should  be  tacked  down  with  large- 
headed  brads.  The  brads  should  completely  encircle  the  plate  and 
should  not  be  more  than  one  inch  apart.  When  put  on  in  this 
way,  and  before  the  paint  has  dried,  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
moisture  or  disease  spores  getting  beneath  it.  Within  a  year 
or  two  the  callous  will  form  over  the  edge  of  the  plate  making 
a  permanently  tight  covering. 


124  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


CHAPTEE  VIII 

COMMON"   INJUEIES   TO    SHADE   TEEES. 

SOURCES  OF  INJURY. 

Trees  in  the  city  and  sometimes  those  in  the  country  are 
subjected  to  many  forms  of  injury.  Many  of  the  common  injuries 
are  the  result  of  either  ignorance  or  indifference  and  may  easily  be 
prevented.  A  large  proportion  of  them,  however,  may  be  attributed 
to  the  unfavorable  conditions  under  which  the  trees  are  grown. 
Many  injuries,  also,  are  caused  by  insects  and  fungi,  but  these 
are  discussed  in  the  following  chapter. 

^Injuries  Caitsed  hy  Gas  and  SmoJce  —  It  is  a  common  occur- 
rence in  towns  and  cities  to  find  trees  dying  or  dead  from  the 
effects  of  gas.  The  injury  may  be  caused  from  the  presence  of 
gas  either  in  the  soil  about  the  roots  or  in  the  air  about  the 
foliage.  Gas  in  the  soil  comes  from  leaking  pipes  and  this 
trouble  may  be  avoided  by  the  careful  laying  of  gas  mains. 
Municipalities  should  see  that  gas  pipes  are  properly  laid  and 
corporations  should  be  held  responsible  for  injuries  caused  by 
leaking  gas  pipes.  On  account  of  the  impervious  layer  of  soil  or 
pavement  on  the  surface,  a  very  small  leak  will  often  cause  much 
injury.  Sometimes  the  trees  will  die  gradually,  one  or  two 
branches  at  a  time,  and  may  survive  for  several  years.  On  the 
other  hand,  cases  have  been  recorded  where  a  whole  row  of  trees 
has  been  killed  in  a  single  season  and  from  a  single  leak  in  a 
gas  main. 

Affected  trees  will  take  on  a  sickly  appearance.  .  The  foliage 
turns  yellow  and  finally  falls.  The  presence  of  gas  in  the  soil 
may  usually  be  detected  by  boring  in  several  places  to  a  depth  of 
three  or  four  feet.  A  soil  auger  is  a  useful  tool  for  this  purpose, 
but  where  this  is  not  available,  a  crowbar  may  be  used.  The  odor 
of  gas  in  these  holes  indicates  with  certainty  its  presence  in  the 
soil.  Where  gas  is  found  it  is  well  to  dig  a  trench  around  the 
trees  and  to  loosen  up  the  soil  as  much  as  possible  to  get  rid  of 
the  gas.  The  leak,  of  course,  should  be  promptly  located  and 
repaired. 

Many  trees  are  injured  by  the  coal  gas  in  the  air  that  comes 
from  smoke  stacks.     Trees  in  the  neighborhood  of  railway  yards 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


125 


and  manufacturing  plants  may  be  found  in  various  stages  of 
decreptitude.  The  only  remedies  for  this  trouble  are  the  passing 
of  city  ordinances  that  aim  to  regulate  the  smoke  nuisance  and 
the  avoiding  of  species  like  the  Elm^  the  Sugar  Maple^  and  others, 
that  are  especially  susceptible  to  gas  poisoning. 

Injuries  From  Overhead  Wires  —  The  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  overhead  telephone  and  electric  lines  is   responsible  for 


Fig-.   51.      A  row  of  trees  that  liave  been  butchered  by  electrie  linemen. 

much  serious  injun^  to  shade  trees.     The  careless  chopping  out  of 
branches  to  admit  of  the  free  passage  of  wires  may  be  seen  almost 


126 


TEEES  IN"  WINTER 


everywhere.  Sometimes  the  whole  center  of  a  tree  has  been 
removed  and  sometimes  a  large  notch  has  been  cut  out  from  one 
side  of  the  tree.  In  either  case  the  general  symmetry  of  the  tree 
has  been  spoiled.    Occasionally  trees  have  been  injured  by  escaping 


g,7  , 

^^fc^^l^^K  1^$'-  -CalMBH 

h 

T 

t  ^Bs^^ 

! 

52.     An    illegitimate    use   of   trees. 


electrical  currents.  This  trouble  comes  from  having  the  wires 
so  near  that  the  branches  touch  them  during  a  wind  storm.  Even 
though  the  trees  are  not  burned  by  the  current,  the  constant 
wearing  of  the  bark  by  the  wires  causes  large  abrasions  that  weaken 
the  branches  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  soon  broken  down 
by  the  wind. 

Telephone  and  Electric  Light  Companies  should  not  be  allowed 
to  mutilate  valuable  shade  trees.     Where  the  trees  interfere  with 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


127 


the  free  passage  of  the  wires  overhead,  the  companies  should  be 
required  to  adopt  the  underground  system.  If  it  should  be 
necessary  to  run  a  line  through  street  trees  the  company  should  be 
required  to  protect  such  trees  from  abrasion. 

Electric  linemen  are  not  the  only  offenders,  but  much  damage 
has  been  done  by  building  contractors  in  the  use  of  trees  as 
anchors  for  guy  wires.  A  wire  tightly  wound  around  a  tree  soon 
interferes  with  the  circulation  of  sap.  (See  fig.  53).  If  trees 
must  be  used  for  this  purpose,  care  should  be  observed  in  protect- 
ing them  from  injury  by  the  use  of  wooden  strips,  as  shown  in 
figure  53. 


Fig. 


53.     The  right  and  wrong-  methods  of  attaching  guy  wires. 


Injuries  From  Regrading  Streets  —  AYorkmen  engaged  in 
repairing,  widening,  or  regrading  streets  often  destroy  valuable 
trees  without  regard  to  the  effect  upon  the  appearance  of  the  street. 
This  reckless  destruction  of  trees  is  usually  unnecessary.  If  a 
street  should  be  widened  to  such  an  extent  that  a  few  trees  are 
likely  to  stand  in  the  roadway  it  is  not  always  necessary  that 
they  should  be  removed.  It  is  sometimes  practicable  to  project 
the  curbing  at  intervals  so  as  to  protect  the  trees,  or  it  may  be 
advisable  to  construct  a  curbing  around  a  tree  and  allow  the 
traffic  to  pass  on  either  side. 

In  the  changing  of  grade  on  city  streets  and  country  roads 
many  trees  are  sacrificed  that  might  be  saved  by  exercising  a  little 
care.  If  soil  is  removed  around  the  base  of  a  tree  the  roots  dry 
out  and  if  the  soil  is  filled  in  around  the  trunk,  to  the 
depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  the  roots  are  deprived  of  air  and  the 
bark  is  injured  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  soil.  A^Tiere  the 
grade  is  lowered  it  is  possible  oftentimes  to  leave  a  mound  of 


128 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


earth  about  the  tree  and  the  mound  may  be  encircled  by  curbing 
from  six  inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  height.  (See  fig.  54).  In 
case  of  fills,  a  tree  may  often  be  saved  by  building  up  a  well 


-•-•  --'^..?,-.,.  v.:''::>^^sfe'i--:      ■■ 

A. 

'■■             iS                                   • 

'^■~^,w  ^  .js^^^^^SfT  ' 

■\  '-is^ 

-  ..'-'^"'^ 

'i'^H^^^^^^Shmbmbv' 

^^^l^&^&iiMB^ 

■mi^H^                                   .^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

^^^  , 

Fig.   54.     A  method  of  saving  trees  where  the  street  grade  is  being 
lowered. 

around  it,  as  shown  in  figure  55.  Unless  the  fill  is  too  deep,  the 
tree  may  be  saved  by  filling  in  around  the  base  with  large  stones. 
On  lawns  this  is  by  far  the  better  practice.  By  the  time  the  soil 
becomes  filled  in  about  the  stones  the  tree  will  have  thrown  out 
new  roots  nearer  the  surface. 

Injuries  From  Improper  Pruning  —  The  commonest  and 
probably  the  greatest  injury  to  shade  trees  comes  from  improper 
pruning  and  the  failure  to  properly  care  for  the  wounds.      (See 


Fig.  55.     Where   the   grade   must   be   raised   about  trees   they   may   be 
saved  by  the  making  of  a  "weU"  about  each  tree. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


129 


figs.  45  and  46.  The  importance  of  making  close,  smooth  cuts 
and  the  necessity  for  protecting  the  wounds  has  been  discussed 
under  the  head  of  Pruning,  and  the  work  of  repairing  damage 
from  this  cause  will  be  discussed  under  the  head  of  Renovation  of 
Trees. 

Injury  From  Horse  Bites  and  Careless  Driving  —  Where  trees 
have  been  used  for  hitching  posts  much  injury  has  been  the  result. 
Horses  gnaw  the  bark  and  cause  large  wounds  on  mature  trees. 
(See  fig.  oQ>).  Trees  affected  in  this  way  are  much  Aveakened  and 
are  liable  to  be  blown  down  by  wind.  Unprotected  young  trees 
are  often  girdled  and  killed  by  gnawing  horses.  Trees  may  be 
protected  from  horse  bites  by  using  wire  netting,  but  on  account  of 
its  unsightly  appearance  some  cities  prefer  to  deal  with  the  problem 
by  passing  and  enforcing  ordinances.  In  some  cities  the  teamsters 
and  drivers  who  have  been  responsible  for  injury  in  this  respect 


Fig.   56.     "Cause   and   Effect."      A   familiar   sight   along   city   streets. 


have  been  heavily  fined  and  as  a  result  the  trees  are  seldom  injured. 
A  heavy  fine,  of  course,  will  not  restore  an  injured  tree  and  since 
there  is  likely  to  be  some  who  are  not  familiar  with  the  law  and 
who  do  not  realize  the  danger,  all  trees  near  the  curb  should  be 
protected.  In  Washington,  wire  poultry-netting  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  It  may  be  obtained  in  two-yard  widths  and  just  enough 
may  be  cut  off  to  reach  around  the  tree.  Sometimes  it  is  wound 
twice  around.    In  either  case  the  ends  are  fastened  with  light  wire 


130 


TREES  IN-  WINTER 


that  will  break  before  causing  serious  pressure  on  the  bark.  A 
safer  way,  and  one  sometimes  followed,  consists  in  using  a  heavier 
grade  of  netting  and  attaching  it  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  tree, 


Fig-.  57.     An  excellent  method  of  protecting-  Shade  Trees  from  injury 
by   horses. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


131 


only,  as  shown  in  figure  57.  The  netting  is  fastened  on  with 
staples  and  as  the  tree  trunk  enlarges^,  the  wire  is  drawn  through 
the  staples. 

Many  trees  are  injured  also  by  passing  vehicles.     Where  the 
trunks  project  out  beyond  the  curb  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  injury. 


r' 


\i:.  .W\  ^n' 


,1}    ^ 


^*'>Ai. 


Fig.   58.     Willow  Trees  after   an   ice   storm. 


132  TEEES  IN  WINTER 

On  city  streets  a  slight  projection  of  the  curbing  will  often  prevent 
much  injury.  On  country  roads  and  in  places  where  there  is 
no  curbing,  the  injury  may  be  prevented  by  the  placing  of  a 
large  stone  in  a  sloping  fashion  in  front  of  the  tree. 

Injuries  From  Wind  and  Ice  —  Much  damage  to  trees  is  done  by 
severe  wind  storms.  The  wind^  of  course,  cannot  be  prevented,  but 
much  trouble  may  be  avoided  by  the  proper  selection  of  species. 
Species  differ  greatly  in  their  ability  to  withstand  wind.  Trees 
that  suffer  most  are  those  with  brittle  wood,  like  the  Willows, 
Poplars,  Ashes,  and  Silver  Maple. 

Evergreens  are  often  injured  by  the  accumulation  of  soft  snow 
on  their  branches.  Valuable  specimens  should  be  closely  watched 
and  relieved  of  their  heavy  burdens  during  snow  storms.  Sleet  or 
ice  storms  when  followed  by  strong  winds  are  very  destructive  to 
trees.  Serious  injury  to  small-growing  trees  usually  may  be  avoided 
by  knocking  off  the  ice  as  it  accumulates.  Most  danger  occurs 
when  the  temperature  falls  after  the  storm  and  the  ice  becomes 
firmly  set  on  the  branches  and  twigs.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  shake  the  ice  off  before  it  sets.  A  long  slender  pole,  padded 
with  burlap,  may  be  used  to  remove  the  ice.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  remove  that  near  the  ends  of  the  branches  where 
the  leverage  is  greatest.  When  broken  branches  are  promptly 
removed  and  the  wounds  properly  treated,  trees  soon  recover  from 
the  effects  of  ice  and  wind  storms.  Poplars  with  excurrent  stems 
often  lose  all  of  their  side  branches,  but  new  branches  soon  take 
their  place. 

Injuries  From  Improper  Soil  Conditions  —  The  soil  along  city 
streets  is  often  very  deficient  in  plant  food  and  is  often  in  a  very 
poor  mechanical  condition.  The  macadamized  and  j^aved  streets 
shut  off  the  natural  water  supply  and  many  trees  are  slowly 
dying  for  the  want  of  water.  Since  the  elements  of  plant  food 
must  be  dissolved  in  water  before  the  trees  can  make  use  of  them, 
much  of  the  injury  may  be  attributed  to  starvation.  Poor  soil 
and  the  lack  of  moisture  produce  what  is  known  as  "stag-head,"  the 
symptoms  of  which  are  a  stunted  and  sickly  appearance  of  the 
tree,  an  imperceptible  annual  growth,  sparsely  scattered  yellow 
foliage,  and  dead  branches  at  the  top  of  the  tree.  The  only 
remedy  for  such  a  condition,  of  course,  is  to  remove  the  cause  of  the 
trouble.     An  open  space  of  at  least  three  feet  in  diameter  must 


PLANTING  AND  CAKE  OF  TREES  133 

be  left  unpaved  around  each  tree  unless  the  roots  may  extend 
beneath  the  sidewalk  and  make  use  of  the  adjacent  lawn  or  yard 
as  a  feeding  ground.  Sometimes  trees  have  been  planted  in  soil 
that  has-come  from  excavations  and  the  only  means  of  correcting 
such  a  condition  is  to  remove  as  much  of  the  soil  as  possible  from 
around  the  roots  and  substitute  for  it  some  rich  garden  soil,  or  a 
liberal  supply  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  may  be  mixed  with  the 
soil  already  about  the  roots. 

Poor  drainage  is  often  responsible  for  much  injury.  Where  the 
soil-water  comes  near  the  surface,  the  roots  are  prevented  from 
entering  deeply  into  the  soil.  Trees  that  have  been  blown  down 
and  those  having  crooked  and  leaning  trunks,  usally  have  been 
grown  under  such  conditions.  Such  trouble  can  be  avoided  only 
by  proper  under-draining. 

RENOVATION   OF   TREES 

The  natural  age  limit  —  Knowing  that  some  trees  have  reached 
the  age  of  several  thousand  years,  it  is  surprising  that  so  many  of 
our  shade  trees  should  die  so  young.  The  age  of  a  dragon  tree 
(Dracaena  Draco)  on  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  is  said  to  be  over 
6,000  years;  that  of  a  Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  mucronatum)  in 
Mexico  is  believed  to  be  over  4,000  years;  and  that  of  an  English 
Oak  (Quercus  pediwculata)  in  Europe  and  a  ''big  tree"  (Sequoia 
gigantea)  in  California  is  known  to  be  over  2,000  years.  Many 
trees  also  have  attained  an  enormous  size,  both  in  height  and  diam- 
eter. The  Eucalyptus  in  Australia  is  known  to  reach  a  height  of 
470  feet  and  the  "Big  Tree,"  the  Redwood,  and  the  Douglas  Fir  of 
California  often  grow  to  a  height  of  300  feet.  The  Sycamore  and 
the  Tulip  Tree  in  the  eastern  states  sometimes  reach  a  height  of 
150  feet.  The  tree  of  largest  diameter  is  found  at  the  base  of 
Mt.  Etna  in  Sicily.  It  is  a  species  of  Chestnut  (Castanea  vcsca) 
and  its  trunk  is  over  60  feet  in  diameter.  Some  people  claim  that 
this  remarkable  tree  is  the  result  of  the  union  of  several  individuals. 
The  Oriental  Sycamore  comes  next  with  a  diameter  of  about  40 
feet. 

These  remarkable  measurements  are  attained  by  trees  growing 
under  favorable  conditions.  The  most  of  our  shade  trees  are  not 
growing  under  conditions  most  favorable  to  their  development.  It 
is  easy  to  find  something  wrong  with  the  environment  of  almost 
every  tree,  and  this  accounts  for  the  failure  or  weakening  of  so 


134  TREES  IN  WINTEK 

many  trees  before  they  reacli  their  maximum  development.  Al- 
though a  definite  age  limit  for  the  various  species  of  trees  cannot 
be  fixed  as  with  animals,  we  frequently  classify  them  as  long-lived 
trees  and  short-lived  trees.  The  Oaks,  the  White  Pine  and  the 
Sycamore  are  regarded  as  long-lived  trees,  and  the  Poplars,  Willows 
and  most  of  the  Birches  as  short-lived.  Most  other  species  are  in- 
termediate between  these  two  extremes. 

Tree  Surgery  —  Property  holders  and  those  w^ho  have  charge  of 
the  tree  work  in  cities,  are  frequently  confronted  with  the  necessity 
for  renovating  trees  that  have  been  neglected  in  the  past.  The 
demand  for  the  improvement  of  neglected  trees  has  brought  into 
existence  a  class  of  men  variously  known  as  "professional  foresters," 
"tree  doctors,"  and  "tree  surgeons"  and  their  business  is  known  as 
tree  surgery.  On  the  whole  these  people  are  reliable  and  are  doing 
a  good  work.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  not  so  dependable  and 
their  work  not  only  is  of  little  value,  but  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  real  injury  to  the  trees.  It  is  well  to  avoid  those  who  claim 
that  by  injecting  into  the  trunk  some  magic  concoction  the  tree  is 
thereafter  immune  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  disease. 

The  reputable  tree  surgeons  are  in  the  habit  of  making  contracts 
for  the  renovation  of  trees.  Towns  and  cities  frequently  engage 
these  experts  to  treat  all  or  a  part  of  their  trees  that  require  at- 
tention. Their  work  usually  consists  in  the  removal  of  all  dead 
wood  front  the  trees,  the  dressing  of  the  wounds,  the  filling  of  the 
cavities,  and  the  necessary  chaining  and  bolting.  Sometimes 
they  are  engaged  either  by  the  same  or  a  separate  contract,  to  spray 
the  trees  and  to  treat  them  in  other  ways.  They  may  contract  to  do 
the  whole  job  for  a  stipulated  amount,  or  they  may  fix  a  charge 
for  each  tree  that  requires  treatment  or  for  each  day  that  they 
work. 

Dehorning  Trees  —  A  few  years  ago  in  the  city  of  Boston  and 
other  New  England  cities,  many  of  the  park  and  street  trees  were 
severely  headed-in  or  "dehorned."  The  practice  was  limited  mostly 
to  the  very  tall  specimens.  Many  fine  old  elms  were  treated  in  this 
way.  The  objects  seem  to  have  been  to  encourage  a  denser  growth 
and  to  lessen  the  danger  from  falling  branches.  The  desired  ob- 
jects were  accomplished,  but  at  a  great  sacrifice  to  the  appearance 
of  the  trees  for  many  years.  After  a  lapse  of  about  fifteen  years 
many  of  the  trees  have  outgrown  the  effects  of  such  harsh  treat- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


135 


ment  and  are  beginning  to  regain  their  natural  habit.  There  are 
few  people  who  approve  of  the  promiscuous  dehorning  of  shade 
trees  and  the  practice  now  is  largely  restricted  to  the  work  of  re- 
juvenating weak  and  neglected  trees. 

There  is  probably  no  better  way  of  putting  new  life  into  weak 
trees  than  by  severely  pruning  during  the  dormant  season.  The 
weaker  the  tree  the  more  severe  should  the  treatment  be.  A  tree 
that  is  making  a  very  small  annual  growth  and  that  has  put  out 
a  scanty  supply  of  foliage  should  be  severely  cut  back.  The  re- 
moval of  three-fourths  of  the  top  during  the  following  winter  would 
tend  to  awaken  new  activities.  When  we  consider  that  the  new 
growth  and  the  development  of  the  foliage  and  blossoms  must  come 


BEFORE     PRUNING.  AFTER   PRUNING. 

Fig.   59.     Heading-in     neglected    Apple    Trees    to    render    them    more 


easily  sprayed  and  to  facilitate  the  harvesting  of  the  fruit, 
practice  in   New   England. 


A  common 


from  the  energy  stored  up  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  and  in  the 
roots,  it  is  not  surprising  that  there  is  sometimes  a  feeble  growth. 
By  removing  a  part  of  the  top,  all  of  the  stored-up  energy  is  forced 
into  the  remaining  part  with  the  result  that  the  tree,  during  the 
following  season,  carries  fewer  leaves,  but  these  are  of  a  better 
color  and  appearance.  A  tree  sometimes  becomes  constitutionally 
unbalanced  from  the  effects  of  an  inadequate  supply  of  food  or  water 
or  from  the  effects  of  insect  attack,  fungus  disease,  or  mechanical 
injury.     A  tree  in  this  condition  has  not  sufficient  energy  stored  up 


136 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


to  put  out  the  required  foliage  to  properly  nourish  the  tree  and  to 
store  up  enough  reserve  food  material  for  the  following  year's 
growth.  As  a  result  the  tree  becomes  weaker  and  weaker  and, 
unless  it  receives  help,  finally  dies.  A  severe  pruning,  while  dor- 
mant, tends  to  throw  the  tree  back  into  proper  balance. 

Except  in  serious  cases,  it  is  not  necessary  to  completely  dehorn 
the  tree,  many  weakened  trees  require  only  a  severe  general  prun- 
ing to  put  them  into  proper  balance^  and  with  such  it  would  be 
unwise  to  spoil  their  shape  by  dehorning.  Some  ill-formed  trees, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  improved  in  shape  by  a  moderate  heading- 
in.     Neglected  apple  trees  for  example,  are  being  severely  dehorned 


Fig-.   BO.     Old   Apple    Trees    one    year    after    being    "dehorned." 


by  many  growers  in  New  England  and  New  York  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  the  height  of  the  trees  and  of  developing  new  heads 
nearer  the  ground.  In  the  most  severe  cases  the  whole  top  is 
removed,  leaving  nothing  but  stubs  from  which  sprouts  readily  de- 
velop, and  these  when  properly  trained,  form  the  new  head.  (See 
figs.  59  and  60). 

AYhen  weakened  trees  are  dehorned  or  severely  pruned  they 
should  be  given  good  care  in  every  respect.  The  breaking  up  of  the 
turf  and  the  application  of  fertilizers  in  the  spring  and  the  supply- 
ing of  water  during  dry  seasons,  will  go  a  long  way  toward  reju- 
venating old  and  weakened  trees. 

Taking  Care  of  Recent  Injuries  —  Fresh  wounds  are  frequently 
found  on  the  trunk  or  main  branches  of  trees.  These  are  usually 
the  result  of  accident,  of  carelessness,  or  of  wilful  destruction.  In 
some  cases  trees  become  girdled  from  leaving  wire  labels  attached, 
from  guy  wires  in  construction  work,  or  by  mischievous  boys.     In 


PLANTING  AND  CAEE  OF  TREES 


137 


Fig    61      A   good    example   of   the   use    of   zinc    in    covering   a    surface 

r^h.  h     t''T.?f  '^'  ''""  *'  ''""^  ^^°^"^^  ^°  ^^^  f^^^hly  cut  edges 
of  the  bark  and  It  is  applied  in  pieces  that  overlap   like  shingles  on  a 


138 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


other  cases  the  trees  are  injured  by  horses  or  passing  vehicles. 
Wounds  made  from  any  such  causes  may  be  easily  and  quickly 
healed  if  treated  before  the  wound  has  had  a  chance  to  dry  out. 
They  should  have  their  edges  trimmed  up  with  a  sharp  knife, 
always  cutting  back  to  firm  bark.  The  whole  surface  should  then 
be  covered  with  grafting  wax  and  bandaged  with  cloth.  If  done 
in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  a  new  bark  will  develop  over  the 
whole  surface.  This  method  of  healing  is  different  from  that 
associated  with  old  wounds. 

Where  a  portion  of  the  bark  has  been  removed  all  around  the 
trunk,  the  trouble  is  more  serious,  but  if  the  wound  is  not  more  than 
three  or  four  inches  in  width  and  if  the  injury  occurred  in  the  early 
part  of  the  summer  when  the  cambium  is  active,  the  tree  may  be 
saved  by  protecting  the  wound  with  wax  as  just  described.  If  the 
wound  has  become  somewhat  dried,  or  if  it  is  a  wide  one,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  resort  to  bridge-grafting. 

For  "bridging"  a  wound  it  is  necessary  to  smoothly  cut  back  the 
edges  of  the  wound  to  sound  bark  and  connect  the  two  edges  with 
freshly-cut  scions.    The  scions  should  be  of  the  past  season's  growth 


Fig-.   62.     Bridge    Grafting.      A   process    used    in    healing   over   wounds 
that   extend   clear   around    the    trunk   or   a   large   branch. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  139 

and  ma}^  be  taken  from  the  same  tree  or  some  other  tree  of  the  same 
species.  The  scions  shoiikl  have  their  leaves  removed,  their  ends 
cut  wedge-shaped,  and  slioidd  be  just  long  enough  to  extend  under 
the  bark  about  an  inch  at  each  end.  The  whole  wound,  scions  and 
all,  should  be  covered  with  soft  grafting  wax  and  cloth  bandages. 
The  scions,  when  they  become  united  to  the  bark  at  both  ends,  serve 
to  conduct  the  elaborated  food  material  down  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  tree.  In  time  the  wound  will  heal  over  completely.  (See  fig. 
62). 

Wounds  of  the  previous  season,  or  those  that  have  been  allowed 
to  dry  out,  will  require  different  treatment.  A  girdled  tree,  if  not 
treated  soon  after  the  accident,  will  die,  but  so  long  as  there  is  a 
strip  of  bark  remaining  there  is  hope  for  the  tree.  In  such  cases, 
the  edges  of  the  wound  should  be  cut  back  to  living  cambium  and 
the  wound  thoroughly  sterilized  with  copper  sulphate,  one  pound 
to  ten  gallons  of  water.  The  whole  wound,  as  soon  as  dry  enough, 
should  be  painted  with  ordinary  white  lead  paint,  or  with  coal  tar, 
and  then  covered  with  zinc.  The  zinc  should  be  cut  so  that  it  will 
fit  exactly  inside  of  the  wound,  and  in  this  way  allow  the  bark  or 
margin  of  the  wound  to  heal  over  the  edge  of  the  zinc.  The  edge 
of  the  zinc  should  be  firmly  nailed  down,  using  large-headed  nails 
not  more  than  an  inch  apart.  The  zinc  may  be  painted  any  color 
that  will  be  inconspicuous.  If  the  zinc  should  become  broken  so 
that  water  may  enter,  it  should  be  promptly  removed  and  replaced 
with  whole  strips. 

Filling  Cavities  —  Many  trees  whose  trunks  have  been  complete- 
ly hollowed  out,  have  been  saved  from  breaking  down  by  the  use 
of  gement  filling.  Cement  is  used  largely  for  support  and  acts 
as  a  reinforcement.  In  order  that  there  should  be  no  further 
decay  the  work  must  be  carefully  done.  The  accompanying  illus- 
tration, figure  63,  shows  the  various  stages  in  filling  a  knot- 
hole cavity.  Briefly  stated  the  work  consists  in  cleaning  out 
all  the  decayed  material,  sterilizing  with  copper  sulphate  so- 
lution, and  filling  with  concrete.  The  edges  of  the  wound 
should  be  trimmed  back  to  living  bark.  Knot-hole  wounds  are 
usually  prepared  by  sawing  off  the  projection  or  lip  around  the 
wound.  If  the  decayed  area  has  not  extended  far  enough  to  weaken 
the  tree,  the  cavity  need  not  be  filled.       It  should  be  cleaned  and 


140 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Fig-.  63.     Tree  Surgery.     Various  stages  in  the  treatment  of  knot-hole 
cavities. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


141 


sterilized^  however,  and  the  opening  covered  with  zinc  as  described, 
for  large  wounds  made  by  pruning. 

In  slender  cavities  where  there  is  a  small  opening,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  some  additional  holes  through  the  living  bark  and  wood  to 
facilitate  the  work  of  cleaning  (see  fig.  64),  and  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  enlarge  the  opening  to  give  more  room  for  working.  In 
such  cases  it  is  also  necessary  to  make  up  the  cement  mixture  in 
a  semi-liquid  form,  so  that  it  will  flow  into  all  crevices. 


3;^- 

■1 

i"-^ 

miri 

r 

^^^■'^ 

^ 

HH'  '"J 

"^ 

^H^V 

^ 

H^B 

;iVl 

^H^B 

H 

^tm 

3 

■■    ^ii 

1 

Pig.  64,  A  well- 
fiUed  cavity  showing 
the  three  holes  that 
were  made  through 
the  Hving  bark  to  fa- 
cilitate the  work  of 
cleaning  out  and  af- 
terward filled  with 
concrete. 


^^^^H 

i 

nUfrw^ 

iS^^H 

H^    i 

1 

Pig-.  65.  This  kind  of  cavity  work 
does  not  detract  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  tree  and  is  a  permanent 
improvement.  Observe     that     the 

cement  is  molded  to  form  a  convex 
surface. 


^  ^^ 


Pig.  66 

.  A  poor 

ly-filled 

cavitj 

Observe 

that    th 

concrete 

has 

concave 

surfac 

and         is         badl 

cracked. 

It    als 

projects 

over    th 

edge   of 

the   bar! 

preventing           it 

healing. 

142 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


Very  large  openings  will  need  to  be  bricked  np  to  hold  the  con- 
crete in  position.  The  proportions  used  in  making  np  concrete 
varies,  but  most  experts  use  one  jDart  cement,  two  parts  sand,  and 
four  parts  crushed  stone  for  the  main  filling.  Just  enough  water 
is  added  to  make  a  mixture  that  will  settle  well  into  all  crevices 
without  much  tamping.  The  finishing  is  done  with  a  stiffer  mix- 
ture made  up  of  one  part  cement  to  two  parts  of  fine  sand  and  just 
enough  water  to  make  a  good  mortar.  Sometimes  nails  are  partly 
driven  into  the  main  filling  to  assist  in  holding  the  finishing  ma- 
terial in  position  until  it  has  hardened. 

The  finishing  of  the  surface  is  one  of  the  most  important  feat- 
ures of  the  work.  The  filling  should  be  left  with  a  convex  surface 
and  the  edge  of  the  concrete  should  be  beveled  off  so  that  it  comes 
jr«;t  beneath  the  cambium  layer  or  inner  bark.  If  the  finishing  is 
properly  done  the  callous  will  form  over  the  edge  of  the  filling.  In 
long  cavities  that  extend  far  up  the  trunk,  it  is  customary  to  divide 


Fig.  67.  Cross-section  of  a  filled  cavity,  showing  the  correct  position 
of  the  concrete  in  relation  to  the  bark  and  cambium.  B — bark;  C — 
cambium  or  inner  bark;  SW — sound  wood;  MF — main  filling  of  concrete; 
P — iron  pipes  for  reinforcement;   F.C. — finishing  concrete. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  143 

the  filling  into  two  or  more  sections  by  cutting  into  it  with  a 
knife  in  about  the  same  way  that  sidewalk  builders  section  off 
their  concrete  walks.  (See  figs.  64  and  65).  This  precaution 
obviates  the  irregular  cracking  of  the  concrete  due  to  the  swaying 
of  the  tree  by  the  wind.  By  reinforcing  the  concrete,  also,  with  two 
or  more  steel  uprights,  by  numerous  steel  rods,  or  by  iron  pipes, 
the  danger  from  cracking  the  filling  is  greatly  reduced.  Even 
though  no  cracks  are  made  in  the  concrete  there  is  likely  to  be  a 
crack  between  the  wood  and  the  filling,  where  water  is  likely  to  en- 
ter. For  this  reason  some  prefer  to  cover  the  concrete  with  zinc, 
tacking  it  down  on  a  freshly-painted  surface  as  previously  de- 
scribed. 

Bolting  and  Cliaining  —  Some  trees  with  bad  crotches,  like  the 
Elm  and  Silver  Maple,  are  very  liable  to  split  down,  unless  protect- 
ed in  some  way.  Any  tree  with  a  cavity  in  its  tmnk,  no  matter  how 
small,  is  likely  to  split  open,  due  to  the  freezing  of  the  accum- 
ulated water.  Trees  affected  in  this  way,  of  course,  should  first 
have  their  cavities  filled  and  the  water  prevented  from  accumu- 
lating. Any  tree  that  shows  a  tendency  to  split  should  be  sup- 
ported by  bolting  or  chaining.  It  is  also  well  to  preclude  damage 
by  bracing  all  trees  with  bad  crotches,  even  when  there  is  no  indi- 
cation of  splitting.  A  sudden  storm  often  tears  large  branches 
from  the  trees  that  are  least  suspected  of  being  injured.  When 
the  branch  is  completely  severed  there  is  no  hope,  and  all  that  can 


Fig-.   68.     The   result   of  improper  methods 
of   supporting-  a   weak   crotch. 

be  done  is  to  trim  up  and  dress  the  wound.  If  the  branch  is  not 
completely  severed  and  if  it  may  be  readjusted  without  injuring  the 
connecting  tissue,  the  chances  are  favorable  for  saving  the  limb. 


144 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


There  are  many  mistakes  made  in  attempting  to  support  a  tree 
prone  to  splitting.  Sometimes  more  harm  than  good  is  done,  and 
frequently  good  trees  are  seriously  injured  by  the  good  intentions 


Fig-.   69.     The   proper   method    of   inserting   a   bolt. 

of  the  owner  or  the  poor  judgment  of  the  so-called  "tree-doctor." 
The  use  of  chains,  wires,  or  iron  bands  around  two  or  more  branches 
is  sure  to  cause  injury.  When  trees  are  supported  in  this  way  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  expansion  or  growth  without  bringing  much 
pressure  on  the  bark,  and,  as  a  result,  the  branches  affected  are 
partially  girdled  and  either  killed  or  greatly  weakened.  (See  fig. 
68). 

When  the  branches  are  far  apart,  the  best  method  of  bracing  is 
in  the  use  of  bolts  with  a  hook  on  one  end  and  a  large  w^asher  and 


Fig-.   70.     Method  of  bolting  a  tree  possessing  three  or  more  main 
branches. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TKEES  145 

nut  on  the  other.  These  are  inserted  by  boring  a  hole  clear 
through  the  branch  and  by  counter  sinking  the  washer  and  nut  as 
shown  in  figure  69.  Two  or  more  of  the  bolts  may  be  inserted  and 
connected  by  wires  or  chains.  The  nuts  soon  become  imbedded  in 
the  wood  and  the  result  is  a  very  efficient  and  inconspicuous  method 
of  bracing. 

AVhere  the  branches  are  near  together,  as  is  usually  the  case  with 
Elms  and  Silver  Maples^  the  bolt  may  be  made  long  enough  to 
extend  through  both  branches  and  threaded  at  both  ends.  The 
nuts  and  washers  in  this  case,  also,  may  be  countersunk.  The 
nearer  the  crotch  the  stronger  should  the  bolt  be  to  stand  the  great 
strain  during  wind  stonns.  A  one-inch  bolt  at  a  distance  of  three 
or  four  feet  from  the  crotch  is  sufficient  except  for  the  larger  trees. 
AVhen  the  bolting  is  done  at  a  distance  of  four  or  more  feet  from 
the  crotch  there  is  more  or  less  swaying  motion  that  tends  to  weaken 
the  bolt.  For  this  reason,  bolts  connected  by  chains  are  preferable 
to  solid  boItS;  except  at  points  very  near  the  crotch.  . 


146 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  CONTEOL  OF  PARASITES. 

FUNGUS  TROUBLES. 
Trees  are  subject  to  a  great  many  kinds  of  disease.  Few  diseases, 
however,  are  so  serious  as  to  require  treatment.  Tree  diseases  are 
caused  mostly  by  parasitic  fungi,  which  are  low  forms  of  vegetable 
life  that  live  upon  and  within  the  tissue  of  the  host  plants.  The 
most  serious  forms,  from  the  shade-tree  standpoint,  are  those  caus- 
ing the  decay  of  the  trunk  and  main  branches.  Since  such  forms 
are  not  capable  of  entering  the  uninjured  bark  these  troubles  usually 


Fig-.  71.  A  Red  Oak  tree  injured 
at  the  base  by  fire.  A  fungus  gained 
access  through  the  wound  and  is 
rapidly  rotting  the  sapwood  beneath. 


may  be  prevented  by  taking  proper  care  of  the  wounds.     It  should 
not  be  assumed  that  the  mere  removal  of  the  toadstool-like  growths 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


147 


on  the  trunk  or  branches  of  a  tree  will  have  any  beneficial  effect,  for 
these  are  the  result  of  disease  and  not  the  real  trouble.  These 
familiar  fungus  growths  are  found  only  on  wood  that  has  become 
diseased  as  a  result  of  some  mechanical  injury,  which  may  have 
occurred  several  years  before.  The  treatment  for  such  troubles,  as 
mentioned  elsewhere,  consists  in  removing  the  decayed  wood  con- 
taining the  fungus,  sterilizing  the  wound,  and  protecting  the  tree 
from  further  infection. 

There  are  some  leaf  diseases,  like  the  black-spot  or  "tar-spot"  on 
the  Maple,  that  sometimes  cause  injury,  but  are  seldom  so  serious 
as  to  kill  the  tree.  There  are  other  tree  troubles  that  affect  the 
leaves  and  which  frequently  cause  serious  alarm  on  the  part  of  the 
owner  of  the  trees.  A  branch  here  and  there  and  sometimes  one- 
half  or  more  of  the  tree  will  show  colored  and  dying  leaves,  many 
of  which  fall  about  mid-summer.  This  trouble  is  especially  com- 
mon on  the  Sugar  Maple,  and  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  cause.  It  is  probably  caused  many  times  by  an  unbal- 
anced condition  of  the  tree.  The  Sugar  Maple  develops  a  large 
growth  of  foliage  in  the  spring,  and  during  the  dry  months  of  July 
and  August  the  roots  seem  to  have  trouble  in  supplying  enough 
moisture  to  take  care  of  the  evaporation  from  the  leaves.  As  a 
result,  some  of  the  less  favored  branches  lose  their  leaves.     Trees 


Fig.  72.     Chestnut  trees  kiUed  by  the  bark  disease. 


148 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


affected  in  this  way  usually  leaf  out  again  the  following  spring  and 
show  no  ill  effects. 

The  most  serious  fungus  pest  of  shade  trees  in  the  northeastern 
states  is  the  Chestnut-hark  disease.  Enormous  tracts  of  chestnut 
timber  have  been  rendered  worthless  except  for  firewood.  Orna- 
mental chestnuts  in  parks  and  on  private  grounds  also  have  been 
killed  in  many  sections.  The  total  financial  loss  from  the  dis- 
ease is  estimated  now  at  $25,000,000.  The  spores  of  the  fungus 
probably  enter  the  bark  through  small  wounds  caused  by  birds, 
insects,   or   abrasions.     They   commence  growth   in  the   cambium 


( 


Fig.   73.     Diseased  Chestnut  bark  showing  pustules  and  form  of  discharge 
of  summer  spores  in  damp  weather.      (Magnified   3   diameters.) 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


149 


layer  and  the  disease  soon  encircles  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  or  a  single 
branch,  as  the  case  may  be.  All  parts  of  the  tree  above  the  in- 
fection dies,  and  if  the  infection  starts  on  the  main  stem  or  trunk, 
the  whole  tree  is  killed. 

So  far,  no  means  has  been  devised  for  the  prevention  or  control 
of  the  disease.  When  valuable  shade  trees  become  affected  in 
one  or  more  branches,  the  remainder  of  the  tree  possibly  may  be 
saved  by  promptly  cutting  out  the  diseased  portion.     It  is  import- 


Fig.  74.  Diseased  Chestnut  bark 
showing-  pustules  of  the  parasitic 
fungus   bearing   winter   spore 


Lnt  that  the  cut  be  made  many  feet  below  the  point  of  infection  to 
avoid  carrying  the  spores  on  the  pruning  saw.  Great  care  also 
should  be  exercised  in  avoiding  injuries  to  the  bark  of  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  tree.  Tlie  wounds  made  in  cutting 
out  the  diseased  branches  should  be  promptly  painted  with  tar  to 
prevent  further  infection. 

INSECT    TROUBLES 

How  Insects  Injure  Trees  —  The  caterpillars,  as  well  as  some 
beetles,  injure  the  trees  by  devouring  the  leaves.     A  tree  may  be 


150  TREES  IN  WINTER 

completely  defoliated  without  being  killed.  When  the  foliage  is 
destroyed  early  in  the  season  a  second  crop  of  leaves  usually  ap- 
pears. The  necessity  for  furnishing  a  second  supply  of  leaves 
in  one  season  weakens  the  tree,  and  if  it  is  repeated  for  three  or 
four  years,  is  likely  to  prove  fatal.  The  condition  becomes  more 
serious  when  the  second  crop  of  foliage  is  also  destroyed.  Without 
foliage  the  tree  cannot  store  up  the  necessary  reserve  material  to 
supply  its  needs  the  following  spring. 

Another  class  of  insects,  mostly  grubs,  cause  injury  by  burrow- 
ing under  the  bark  and  into  the  wood  of  trees.  These  are  the 
so-called  borers.  Occasionally  one  of  these  insects,  like  the  Maple 
borer,  will  completely  girdle  and  cause  the  death  of  a  tree  in  one 
season,  but  usually  they  will  work  in  a  tree  for  many  years  before  it 
dies.  The  insects  so  weaken  the  trees  that  they  are  finally  blown 
over  or  broken  down.  To  this  class  of  insects  belong  some  of 
our  more  serious  pests.  Their  destructiveness  is  because  of  their 
habit  of  attacking  a  tree  at  its  most  vital  point  —  the  cambium  — 
and  because  their  presence  is  not  often  detected  until  much  dam- 
age has  been  done.  Even  when  they  are  known  to  be  present  they 
are  destroyed  with  great  difficulty. 

A  third  class  of  insects,  including  the  bugs,  scales,  and  plant  lice, 
injure  the  trees  by  piercing  the  tissue  and  sucking  the  juices.  The 
affected  foliage  becomes  pale  in  color,  curls  up,  and  sometimes  dies. 
The  bark  also  becomes  infested  and  often  large  pits  or  indentations 
are  formed.  With  most  members  of  this  class,  their  great  power 
for  destruction  lies  in  their  appearing  in  such  enormous  numbers 
and  in  their  power  to  reproduce  so  abundantly.  Of  the  San  Jose 
scale,  for  example,  there  are  three  or  four  broods  in  a  season,  and 
one  pair  of  insects  surviving  the  winter  may  by  fall  have  progeny 
numbering  into  the  billions. 

Methods  of  Comhatting  Insects  —  In  the  control  of  insect  pests 
it  is  necessary  to  know  something  about  their  feeding  habits.  The 
failure  to  get  satisfactory  results  from  spraying  may  usually  be  at- 
tributed to  the  use  of  the  wrong  remedy.  In  the  control  of  insects 
that  obtain  their  food  by  sucking,  no  benefit  would  be  derived  from 
the  application  of  stomach  poisons,  for  it  would  be  impossible  to 
get  any  of  the  poison  into  the  insects'  food.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  first  determine  to  which  class  the  pest  belongs  — 
whether  it  is  a  chewing-insect  or  a  sucking-insect. 


PLANTING  AND  CAKE  OF  TREES  151 

It  is  well  to  determine  also  whether  the  insect  causing  the  injury- 
is  in  the  larval  or  adult  form.  As  a  rule,  injury  is  caused  by  in- 
sects in  the  larval  form  only,  but  some  species,  like  the  Elm-leaf 
beetle,  feed  during  both  the  larval  and  adult  stages.  With  insects 
of  the  latter  type  it  is  always  advisal)le  when  possible  to  destroy 
them  in  the  adult  form  before  they  have  had  a  chance  to  deposit 
their  eggs,  and  in  this  way  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  second  gen- 
eration. 

Spraying  for  Insects  —  The  most  common  and  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  controlling  insects  is  by  spraying.  There  are 
many  instances,  however,  where  spraying  is  not  practicable,  and 
there  are  many  kinds  of  insects  that  cannot  be  controlled  in  this 
way.  The  preparation  and  application  of  insecticides  and  the  ap- 
pliances used  in  the  work  will  be  discussed  under  the  heading  of 
"Insecticides,  Fungicides,  and  Spraying." 

Hand-Piching  of  Insects  —  The  large  and  conspicuous  cater- 
pillars often  may  be  controlled  by  hand-picking.  Their  presence 
usually  may  be  indicated  by  their  droppings  on  the  ground.  Cat- 
erpillars that  live  in  colonies  or  that  build  tents  like  the  fall  web- 
worm  and  the  tent-caterpillar,  may  be  destroyed  either  by  burning 
with  a  torch  or  by  cutting  or  brushing  them  out  and  dipping  them  in 
kerosene.  Conspicuous  nests  and  Qgg  masses  like  those  of  the  gypsy, 
tussock,  and  brown-tail  moths,  may  be  destroyed  either  on  or  off  the 
tree  during  the  dormant  season.  Where  small  bounties  have  been 
offered  to  school  children,  serious  pests  have  been  kept  under  con- 
trol without  further  expense. 

Borers  also  are  usually  controlled  by  hand-picking,  ^ne  saw- 
dust-like castings  around  the  base  of  the  tree  is  an  indication  of 
their  presence.  A  sharp  pocket  knife,  with  which  to  dig  the  insects 
out,  will  be  found  useful.  A  flexible  wire  or  an  old-fashioned 
knitting  needle  sometimes  may  be  used  to  kill  the  insect  without 
cutting  into  the  bark. 

Banding  and  Trapping  —  Man}^  ways  have  been  devised  for  trap- 
ping insects  and  thus  preventing  them  from  reaching  their  feed- 
ing and  breeding  places.  These  methods  of  control  are  especially 
useful  on  forest  lands  and  other  places  where  it  is  impracticable  to 
spray.  Sticky  bands  and  other  obstacles  tied  around  trees  make  it 
possible  to  destroy  many  insects  that  congregate  beneath  the  band 
in  their  efforts  to  reach  the  foliage.       This  method  is  especially 


152 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


useful  with  certain  wingless  moths  that  may  be  prevented  from 
depositing  their  eggs.  The  important  point  regarding  their  use 
is  to  have  them  in  position  when  the  insects  commence  to  crawl  up 
the  tree. 

The  simplest  band  is  made  by  using  a  strip  of  cotton  batting, 
about  eight  inches  in  width  and  Ions:  enoudi  to  reach  around  the 


Fig-.   75.     Method    of    applying-    sticky    bands    to    protect    trees    from 
Canker-worms. 


tree  and  to  lap  over  an  inch  or  more.     The  batting  is  finnly  tied 
around  the  tree  trunk  at  a  point  about  six  feet  from  the  ground. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  153 

The  twine  used  for  the  purpose  should  pass  around  the  lower  border 
of  the  batting  so  that  the  upper  border  may  be  turned  down,  form- 
ing an  umbrella-like  barrier. 

The  most  satisfactory  band  is  one  made  of  sticky  material  like 
"Tree  Tanglefoot,"  a  commercial  preparation,  which  may  be  ob- 
tained for  about  thirty  cents  per  pound.  After  smoothing  off  the 
bark  it  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  tree.  Young,  thin-barked 
trees  may  be  injured  by  direct  contact  and  for  this  reason  the 
"Tanglefoot"  may  be  applied  to  a  strip  of  tarred  roofing  paper, 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  tree.  For  ornamental  trees  it  is  usually 
advisable  to  use  the  roofing  paper,  for  this  may  be  removed  after 
the  trapping  season  is  over.  Where  the  bark  is  rough  a  narrow 
strip  of  cotton  batting  may  be  placed  beneath  the  paper  to  pre- 
vent the  insects  from  crawling  beneath.  (See  fig.  75).  Where 
it  is  desirable  to  leave  these  bands  on  for  more  than  one 
season  they  should  be  recoated.  Where  the  paper  is  tacked  only  at 
the  lap  it  will  stretch  sufficiently  to  accommodate  at  least  one 
year's  growth.  Bands  put  on  in  this  way  have  been  successfully 
used  for  three  or  four  seasons. 

Night-flying  moths  are  often  trapped  around  electric  lights. 
Some  insects,  like  the  leopard  moth,  are  hard  to  destroy  in  any 
other  way.  The  simplest  way  is  to  suspend  beneath  the  light  a 
shallow  vessel  containing  water  with  a  layer  of  oil  on  the  surface. 
The  moths  are  attracted  to  the  light  and  accidentally  drop  in  the 
liquid  and  are  killed. 

Preve?itive  Measures  —  The  careful  selection  of  species  for 
planting  is  undoubtedly  the  best  way  of  handling  the  insect  prob- 
lem' with  respect  to  shade  trees.  Some  trees  are  remarkably  free 
from  insect  troubles,  but  none  are  absolutely  immune.  The  spe- 
cies in  the  following  list  of  commonly  planted  trees  are  arranged  in 
order  of  least  susceptibly  to  insect  attack:  Ailanthus,  Ginkgo, 
Sweet  Gum,  Basswood,  Tulip  Tree,  Carolina  Poplar,  Horse-chest- 
nut, Sycamore,  Hackberr}^,  the  Oaks,  the  Maples,  the  Elms,  the 
Locusts.  The  least  susceptible  species,  of  course,  are  not  always  the 
most  desirable  for  planting,  for  they  may  not  possess  the  other 
qualifications  of  a  good  shade  tree. 

Since  a  large  proportion  of  the  shade  trees  in  use  belong  to  sus- 
ceptible species,  the  recommendation  concerning  the  selection  of 
species  applies  only  to  new  plantations.       Much  may  be  done  in 


154  TEEES  IN"  WINTER 

the  way  of  preventing  injury  by  keeping  trees  growing  vigorously. 
A  strong-growing  tree  is  better  able  to  withstand  the  attack  of  in- 
sects than  a  decrepit  one.  Some  insects,  like  the  bark-beetles,  cause 
serious  injury  to  weakened  trees,  while  they  seldom  affect  vigorous 
specimens.  The  burning  of  infested  branches,  leaves,  fruit  or  other 
rubbish  where  insects  are  likely  to  hibernate  will  destroy  many 
pests  and  lessen  the  severity  of  the  attack  in  succeeding  seasons. 

Natural  Enemies  of  Insects  —  Much  may  be  done,  also,  to  guard 
against  insect  depradations  by  protecting  the  natural  enemies  of 
the  insects.  In  sections  where  birds  are  allowed  to  collect  and  are 
encouraged  to  nest,  the  excessive  development  of  insect  pests  is  pre- 
vented. Injurious  insects  also  have  many  enemies  among  their 
own  kind.  It  is  a  common  occurrence  to  see  a  large  caterpillar 
almost  completely  covered  with  small  white  bodies.  These  are 
the  cocoons  of  a  parasitic  insect,  the  earlier  stages  of  which  have 
been  spent  within  the  host  insect.  Caterpillars  thus,  affected  some- 
times survive,  but  are  usually  too  weak  to  complete  their  develop- 
ment. Insects  affected  in  this  way  should  not  be  destroyed  by 
man,  for  in  doing  so  he  also  destroys  many  useful  parasites. 

Some  insects  are  attacked  also  by  certain  fungus  diseases  that 
exert  a  marked  influence  on  keeping  the  pest  under  control.  Owing 
to  the  influence  of  a  fungus  parasite,  the  gypsy  moth  in  its 
native  home  is  not  a  serious  pest.  AYhen  the  insect  was  accident- 
ally imported  the  fungus  parasite  was  left  behind,  hence  the 
seriousness  of  the  j^est  in  this  country.  A  representative  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  a  short  time  ago  went 
to  Japan  and  brought  back  come  cultures  of  the  parasitic  fungus. 
Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  encourage  the  development  of  the 
disease  amidst  the  gypsy  moths  of  Maasschusetts. 

There  are  many  other  examples  of  insects  having  been  imported 
without  their  natural  enemies,  and  among  these  are  the  most  serious 
pests  of  trees,  such  as  the  San  Jose  scale,  the  leopard  moth,  the 
brown-tail  moth,  and  the  elm-leaf  beetle.  Such  serious  pests  as 
these  and  some  fungus  pests,  also,  have  been  imported  on  nursery 
stock  and  might  have  been  avoided  by  an  adequate  system  of  in- 
spection. Some  form  of  legislation  is  badly  needed  for  the  pre- 
vention of  infested  nursery  stock  coming  into  this  country. 

SOME  COMMON   SHADE   TREE    INSECTS 
To  prescribe  the  proper  treatment  for  the  control  of  any  particu- 
lar pest,  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  identify  the  species  causing 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  155 

the  trouble  and  to  know  something  about  its  feeding  habits.  Many 
of  the  failures  in  spraying  may  be  attributed  to  the  application  of 
the  wrong  remedy.  Since  there  are  many  books  and  Experiment 
Station  bulletins  relating  to  specific  shade  tree  pests,  it  is  necessary 
here  to  describe  only  the  most  destructive  forms.  Every  state  has 
its  experiment  station  where  insects  may  be  sent  for  identification 
and  where  advice  may  be  obtained  regarding  the  control  of  insects 
and  diseases  and  other  subjects.  In  the  descriptions  that  follow  no 
attempt  is  made  at  completeness.  To  call  attention  to  the  more 
striking  characters  and  habits  is  the  object.  The  character  of  the 
injury  is  emphasized  because  this  is  usually  the  most  available 
means  of  identification. 

LEAF-EATING  INSECTS. 

Bag  ^Vorm  — ■  This  ins,ect  gets  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the 
larva  carries  a  sort  of  bag  that  protects  its  body.  The  forepart 
of  the  caterpillar's  body  projects  through  the  mouth  of  the  bag. 
These  bags  are  very  conspicuous  on  trees  in  winter  and  contain 
the  eggs  from  which  the  caterpillars  hatch  during  the  month  of 
May.  Each  young  caterpillar  immediately  after  hatching  com- 
mences to  build  a  sack  for  itself,  using  small  pieces  of  leaves  and 
fastening  them  together  with  threads  of  silk.  The  bags  increase  in 
size  as  the  insect  develops  and  are  from  one  to  two  inches  in 
length  when  the  larva  is  full  grown.  The  larva  feeds  on  a  great 
variety  of  trees,  including  the  evergreens.  Allien  the  insect  is  ready 
to  pupate  it  attaches  the  bag  to  a  branch  or  twig  and  reverses  its 
position  in  the  bag.  In  about  three  weeks  the  mature  insect 
emerges  in  the  form  of  an  inconspicuous  moth.  The  male  moth 
flies'  away,  but  the  female  moth  is  wingless  and  legless  and  remains 
in  the  bag  until  she  has  deposited  her  eggs,  when  she  wriggles  out 
and  dies. 

The  pest  may  be  controlled  by  collecting  the  nests  during  the 
winter  or  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the  cater- 
pillars appear. 

Brown-tail  Moth  —  This  pest  was  introduced  into  ^lassachusetts 
about  twenty  years  ago  and  is  now  spreading  rapidly  throughout 
the  neighboring  states  and  Canada.  It  feeds  on  a  great  variety 
of  plants  and  is  especially  destructive  on  the  Maples,  Elms,  and 
Oaks.     The  adult  moth  is  snowy-white  and  is  distinguished  readily 


156 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


by  the  conspicuous  brown  ending  of  the  body.  The  female  lays 
her  eggs  in  July  and  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  cluster  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves.     The  eggs  hatch  in  early  August,  and  the  young 


Fig.   76.     Adult  female  (nat- 
ural   size.) 


Fig.  77.  Egg-mass 
on  a  leaf.  (Natural 
size.) 


Fig.  78.     The  Brown-tail  Moth.     Winter  nests.      (Natural   size.) 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


157 


caterpillars  commence  feeding  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves. 
A  little  later,  using  leaves  and  silken  threads,  they  build  large  nests 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  as  cold  weather  approaches  the 
undeveloped  caterpillars  enter  these  nests  where  they  spend  the  win- 
ter. From  two  to  three  hundred  enter  the  same  nest.  They  come 
out  in  April,  feed  upon  the  buds  and  leaves,  finish  their  growth  and 
about  the  end  of  June  become  pupae.  They  remain  in  this  con- 
dition for  about  two  weeks,  when  the  adult  moths  appear.  The  cat- 
erpillars when  they  appear  are  about  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
length  and  are  abundantly  clothed  with  hairs  which  often  become 
broken  and  fill  the  atmosphere  with  fragments.  These  hairs  com- 
ing into  contact  with  the  human  skin  cause  a  serious  irritation. 

This  pest  may  be  controlled  by  collecting  and  destroying  the 
winter  nests,  and  this  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory  method. 
Long-handled  "toppers"  (fig.  49)  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
Spraying  early  in  May  with  arsenate  of  lead,  10  pounds  to  100 
gallons  of  water,  may  also  be  depended  upon  to  keep  the  insect 
under  control. 

Canker  Worms  —  These  are  the  familiar  measuring  worms  or 
loopers.     They  are  often  observed  hanging  from  a  tree  by  a  slender 


Fig.   79.     Adult     Female     Canker- 
Worm    depositing   her   eggs. 

thread.  There  are  two  closely  related  species,  the  fall  canker  worm 
and  the  spring  canker  worm.  They  feed  upon  many  kinds  of  trees, 
but  seem  to  prefer  the  Apple,  Pear,  Chestnut,  Elm,  Hickory,  Box 


158  •  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Elder  and  Maple.  The  eggs  are  deposited  either  in  late  fall  or 
early  spring,  and  hatch  about  Ma}^  first.  Usually  the  young  cat- 
erpillars completely  devour  the  tissue  of  the  leaves,  leaving  noth- 
ing but  the  veins.  About  the  first  of  June  they  become  full  grown 
and  are  almost  an  inch  in  length.  They  let  themselves  down  by 
means  of  a  silken  thread  and  go  into  the  ground  where  they  remain 
in  the  pupal  state  until  fall.  The  adults  of  the  fall  species 
emerge  in  Xovember  and  the  wingless  females  may  be  seen  crawling 
up  the  trunks  of  trees  to  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  branches.  The 
adults  of  the  spring  species  emerge  in  March  or  April. 

Since  the  females  cannot  fly,  they  must  crawl  up  the  trees  to  lay 
their  eggs,  and  this  suggests  the  method  of  control.  The  pest  may 
be  kept  completely  under  control  by  banding  the  trees.  (See  fig. 
75).  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  (ten  pounds  to  100 
gallons  of  Avater)  will  destroy  all  insects  that  hatch  from  the  eggs 
already  on  the  trees. 

Elm-Leaf  Beetle  —  This  is  another  imported  insect  and  is  one 
of  the  worst  pests  of  the  Elms.  Fortunately  its  ravages  are  restrict- 
ed to  the  Elms.  Tiie  adult  beetles  are  a  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length 
and  are  yellowish,  grayish,  or  dull  olive-green  in  color  with  an  in- 
distinct dark  line  along  each  side  of  their  back.  They  usually 
spend  the  winter  in  the  attics  of  houses  or  other  sheltered  places. 
They  appear  early  in  May  and  commence  feeding  on  the  newly- 
formed  leaves,  making  characteristic  round  holes.  During  the 
latter  part  of  May  or  early  in  June  the  beetles  deposit  the  familiar 
orange-colored  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  These  hatch 
in  about  a  week  and  the  young  grubs  commence  feeding  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the  leaf.  The  grubs  mature  in  about  three  weeks  and 
descend  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  where  they  change  to  pupae.  A  sec- 
ond brood  sometimes  occurs. 

Spraying  the  newly-formed  foliage  in  May  with  arsenate  of  lead 
will  usually  be  sufficient  to  control  the  pest,  but  occasionally  a  sec- 
ond application  as  soon  as  the  grubs  appear,  will  be  necessary. 
The  pupae  around  the  base  of  the  tree  may  be  killed  by  spraying 
with  strong  kerosene  emulsion. 

Gypsy  Moth  —  This  destructive  insect  was  imported  accidentally 
about  forty  years  ago.  Its  larva  feeds  on  almost  any  kind  of  veg- 
egation,  including  all  kinds  of  shade  trees  and  ornamental  shrubs. 
The    eggs    are    laid    usually    on    the    trunks    and    branches    of 

TOOPERTY  OF 

gftV-GOUEGE  LIBRARY. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


159 


trees,  but  sometimes  on  fences  and  buildings,  in  July  or  August. 
The}'  are  arranged  in  oval  masses  and  are  covered  with  short  hairs. 
The  whole  mass  presents  a  creamy  or  yellowish  apj^earance.  They 
remain  in  this  condition  until  the  following  May,  when  the  young 
caterpillars  appear  and  begin  feeding  upon  the  expanding  foliage. 


Larva  Papae  "        Adults 

Fig.   80.     The    Elm-Leaf   Beetle    in    its    various   stages. 


Fig.  81.  Holes 
made  by  the  adult 
Elm-Leaf  Beetles. 


Fig.  82.  Elm-Leaf  Beetle  Larvae  work- 
ing on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf.  (Natural 
size.) 


160 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


The  caterpillars  when  mature  are  somewhat  over  two  inches  in 
length,  and  are  covered  with  long  hairs.  In  color  they  are  dark 
brown  with  a  pair  of  blue  spots  on  each  of  the  first  five  segments  and 
a  pair  of  red  spots  on  each  of  the  remaining  six  segments.  In  early 
July  they  change  to  pupae,  and  in    late    July  develop  into  adult 


Fig-.  S3.  A  Gypsy  Moth  eg-g-mass, 
natural  size,  after  the  larvae  have 
emerged    through    the    small    holes. 


moths.  The  moths  measure  about  five  inches  across  the  expanded 
wings.  The  male  is  smaller  than  the  female  and  is  brown  in  color. 
The  female  is  almost  white  with  dark  markings.  They  are  heavy- 
bodied  insects  and,  for  this  reason,  do  not  fly  long  distances. 

One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  controlling  the  pest  is  by  de- 
stroying the  egg  masses  during  the  fall  and  winter.  A  sponge  sat- 
urated with  creosote  and  attached  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole  is  used 
for  this  purpose.  A  little  lamp-black  is  added  to  the  creosote  to 
color  the  egg  masses.  In  Massachusetts,  the  following  creosote 
mixture  is  used:  Creosote  oil  50  parts,  carbolic  acid  20  parts,  tur- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OP  TREES 


161 


Fig-.  84.     Full-grown   Gypsy   Moth    Larvae. 


yrJP:    V  •*:■'        '■'"'■.       ^   ■,'..^^3MjSMm$^-v  ■''^:--;:^^ 

Fig.   85.     Adult    female    Gypsy    Moths    depositing-    egg-masses    at 
the  foot  of  an  Oak  Tree. 


162  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

pentine  20  parts,  coal  tar  10  parts.  With  tall  trees  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  get  up  among  the  branches. 

Since  the  caterpillars  feed  mostly  at  night  and  congregate  on 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  during  the  day,  it  is  possible  to  trap  many  of 
them  under  burlap  bands.  A  simple  band  may  be  made  up  by 
tying  a  piece  of  cheap  burlap,  eight  inches  in  width^  around  the 
trunk  and  turning  the  upper  edge  down  over  the  string.  The  bands 
should  be  examined  every  afternoon  and  the  trapped  insects 
brushed  off  into  a  pail  of  kerosene  and  water. 

When  infested  trees  have  been  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead  (12 
pounds  to  100  gallons  of  water)  soon  after  the  leaves  appear,  and 
while  the  insects  are  small,  good  results  have  followed.  The  full- 
grown  caterpillars  are  more  resistant  to  arsenical  poisons  and  may 
feed  upon  the  sprayed  foliage  for  a  long  while  before  they  get 
enough  to  kill  them. 

Slugs  —  The  larvae  of  certain  insects  known  as  saw-flies,  are 
slimy-looking  creatures  and  are  called  slugs.  One  species  is  quite 
troublesome  on  the  Pear,  another  on  the  Willow,  and  the  most  de- 
structive of  all  on  the  Larch.  The  slugs  vary  in  size  according  to 
the  species;  the  species  affecting  the  Willow  being  over  an  inch  in 
length,  while  that  on  the  Pear  is  less  than  a  half  inch.  The  slugs 
appear  in  the  spring  and  lavishly  feed  upon  the  developing  foliage. 
They  are  readily  controlled  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  ord- 
inary strength. 

Another  insect  belonging  to  this  class  is  known  as  the  Maple  leaf- 
stem  borer.  It  has  entirely  different  habits  from  those  just  de- 
scribed. The  adult  lays  its  eggs  in  the  leaf-stalk  at  the  base  of 
the  blade  of  the  leaf.  The  young  larva  tunnels  inside  the  stem, 
eating  out  the  tissue.  The  affected  blades  break  off  and  fall  to  the 
ground  about  June  first.  The  stems  containing  the  insects  remain 
attached  to  the  ground  where  they  pupate  and  emerge  the  following 
spring  as  adult  saw-flies. 

The  insect  attacks  the  Sugar,  Norway  and  Sycamore  Maples.  It 
is  not  widely  distributed  and  seldom  causes  serious  injury.  Spray- 
ing the  ground  well  with  kerosene  emulsion  about  June  15th  when 
the  larvae  are  going  into  the  soil,  has  been  suggested. 

Spiney  Elm  Caterpillar  —  This  is  the  name  applied  to  the 
larva  of  the  common  "mourning  cloak"  butterfly.  Besides  the 
Elm,  it  feeds  on  the  Poplar  and  Willow.      In  some  seasons  it  be- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  163 

comes  a  serious  pest,  but  on  Elms  is  controlled  readily  at  the  same 
time  that  trees  are  sprayed  for  the  leaf-beetle.  The  eggs  are  laid 
early  in  May  and  are  in  cylindrical  clusters  around  the  twigs.  They 
hatch  in  about  two  weeks  and  the  caterpillars  arrange  themselves 
in  rows  facing  the  edge  of  the  leaf.  They  completely  skeletonize 
the  leaf,  leaving  only  the  veins,  and  later  in  the  season,  only  the 
mid-rib.  When  the  caterpillars  reach  maturity,  about  the  first  of 
July,  they  are  nearly  two  inches  in  length,  black  with  white  and  red 
dots,  and  covered  with  black  branched  spines.  About  this  time 
they  enter  the  pupal  state  which  lasts  about  two  weeks,  when  the 
adults  appear.  The  butterflies  soon  commence  depositing  eggs 
which,  when  hatched,  form  the  second  brood  of  caterpillars. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  spray  especially  for  this  pest.  If  found 
on  young  trees  they  may  be  jarred  off  or  the  affected  twigs  may  be 
cut  off  and  the  insects  destroyed. 

The  Tent  CaterpiUar  and  Fall  Weh-worm  —  It  is  a  common 
occurrence  to  find  unsightly  looking  webs  in  trees.  These  are 
caused  by  tent  caterpillars  or  fall  web-worms.  The  larvae  feed 
on  the  foliage,  but  their  chief  injury  is  in  giving  the  tree  an 
unsightly  appearance.  A  species  closely  related  to  the  ordinary 
tent  caterpillar  that  is  commonly  found  on  Apple  Trees,  is  called 
the  forest  tent  caterpillar.  This  insect  does  not  build  a  tent,  but 
spins  a  silky  Aveb  along  the  branches  and  the  caterpillars  congre- 
gate in  clusters  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  other  species. 

The  best  method  of  controlling  these  pests  is  to  cut  off  and 
burn  the  webs  with  the  insects.  Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead 
will  kill  the  young  caterpillars,  but  does  not  get  rid  of  the  unsightly 
web. 

Tussock  Moth  —  The  handsome  larvae  of  this  insect  is  a  common 
shade  tree  pest  in  towns  and  cities.  It  feeds  on  the  foliage  of 
almost  all  ornamental  trees  except  the  evergreens.  The  insect 
passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage.  The  young  caterpillars  appear 
in  May  and  commence  to  feed  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves, 
eating  the  green  portion  and  leaving  the  framework.  When  they 
become  larger  they  eat  holes  through  the  leaf  and  when  full 
grown  they  eat  the  entire  leaf  except  the  mid-rib. 

The  full  grown  larva  is  very  striking  in  appearance,  of  yellow 
color  beneath,  with  gray  strij)es  along  the  sides,  and  a  black  stripe 
between  two  yellow  ones  along  the  back.     Along  the  sides  are  a 


164  TREES  IN   WINTER 

number  of  tubercles,  each  bearing  white  hairs.     Four  large  tufts 
of  hair  are  borne   along  the   back  and  following   these   are   two 


Fig-.   86.     Tent  Caterpillars  resting  on  the  outside  of  their  nest, 

1 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


165 


bright  red  tubercles.  The  head  is  bright  red  and  is  supplied 
with  two  tufts  of  long  black  hairs.  A  single  long  tuft  is  borne 
on  the  posterior  extremity. 

About  the  first  of  July  the  larva  spins  a  silken  cocoon,  gray  in 
color  and  attached  to  the  rough  bark  of  the  tree.  It  remains 
in  this  condition  about  two  weeks  when  the  adult  moth  emerges. 
The  female  moth  which  is  without  wings,  about  a  half  inch  in 


Fig-.   87.      White-marked  Tussock  Moth  Larvae  on  under 
side  of  leaf.     (Natural  size.) 


length,  and  gray  in  color,  soon  commences  to  deposit  her  eggs. 
The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  outside  of  the  abandoned  pupal  case  or 
cocoon.  These  soon  hatch  forming  the  second  brood  which  goes 
through  the  same  transformations. 


166  TREES  IK  WINTER 

The  best  way  of  controlling  this  pest  is  in  the  destruction  of 
the  egg-masses  during  the  winter.  This  nia}^  be  done  either  by 
scraping  them  off  and  burning  them  or  by  treating  them  with 
creosote  in  the  same  way  as  described  for  gypsy  moth  eggs.  The 
pest  may  be  controlled  also  by  spraying  in  June  with  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  six  pounds  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 
By  destroying  the  first  brood  in  June  there  should  be  no  trouble 
from  the  second  brood  later  in  the  season. 

SUCKING-IXSECTS. 

A2)'lus  or  Plant  Lice  —  There  are  many  species  of  aphis  affecting 
shade  trees.  As  a  rule  different  species  attack  different  kinds  of 
trees.  They  are  very  much  alike  except  in  color.  The  green, 
brown,  black,  and  woolly  forms  are  the  most  common.  The  insects 
pass  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage  and  often  in  early  spring  the 
newly  hatched  lice  may  be  seen  in  large  clusters  on  the  swollen 
buds  and  newly  formed  leaves.  A  little  later  the  leaves  curl  up 
and  the  insects  remain  inside  sucking  the  juice  from  the  tissue 
of  the  leaf.  The  insects  multiply  very  rapidly  and  often  cause 
much  injury  to  ornamental  trees.  They  secrete  a  sort  of  honey- 
dew  that  collects  on  the  foliage  and  often  drops  to  the  ground. 
A  fungus  often  develops  on  this  sweet  secretion  giving  it  a  black, 
unsightly  appearance. 

This  pest  seldom  becomes  so  serious  as  to  require  treatment, 
but  may  be  controlled,  if  remedial  measures  are  necessary,  by 
spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  as  soon  as  the  young  lice  appear 
and  before  the  leaves  begin  to  curl.  Fine  tobacco  powder  blown  on 
the  trees  after  the  leaves  have  curled  will  be  found  helpful  in 
controlling  the  pest.  The  use  of  whale-oil  soap,  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  to  five  gallons  of  water,  is  recommended  Avhere  only  a 
small  amount  of  spray  material  is  required.  It  costs  a  little 
more  than  kerosene  emulsion,  but  is  more  conveniently  prepared. 

The  Spruce  Gall  Louse  is  different  from  the  other  species  of 
this  class  in  that  it  builds  galls  on  the  growing  twigs.  In  some 
sections  it  has  become  a  serious  pest  of  the  N'orway  Spruce.  The 
Black,  White,  and  Blue  Spruces  are  also  subject  to  attack.  The 
eggs  are  laid  about  May  first,  the  young  lice  appearing  about  a 
week  later  and  settling  at  the  base  of  the  new  shoots.  By  some 
peculiar  form  of  irritation  produced  by  the  insects,  a  gall-like 
swelling  is   produced.      Concealed  within  these  galls  the   insects 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


167 


feed  upon  the  juices  of  the  plant.     There  are  two  broods  in  a 
season  and  infested  trees  soon  present  an  unsightly  appearance. 

Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  late  in  April  to  kill  the  adult 
insects,  is  usually  recommended.  Some  claim  that  spraying  with 
whale-oil  soap,  one  pound  to  two  gallons  of  water,  gives  better 


Fig. 


The  work  of  the  Spruce  Gall-louse. 


results.  AVhatever  is  used  it  should  be  applied  before  the  galls 
are  formed.  On  small  trees  the  pest  may  be  kept  under  control 
by  cutting  out  and  burning  the  galls  as  soon  as  they  are  formed 
and  while  the  insects  are  within. 

Scale  Insects  —  The  most  destructive  forms  of  scale  insects  are 
the  cottony  maple  scale,  the  woolly  maple  scale,  the  San  Jose 
scale,  the  oyster-sliell  scale,  the  scurfy  scale,  and  the  tulip  scale. 
They  are  all  small  and  some  of  them  are  so  inconspicuous  as  to 
go  unnoticed  until  much  damage  has  been  done.  The  young 
insects,  as  a  rule,  are  active  only  during  the  first  few  days  of 
their  life,  after  which  they  settle  down,  project  their  beak  into  the 
bark,  leaf,  or  fruit  and  remain  there  for  the  rest  of  their  lives. 


168 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


As  a  class,  they  secrete  a  waxy  or  scaly  covering  to  their  body 
and  for  this  reason  are  called  scale  insects.  The 'scaly  covering 
of  the  San  Jose  species  is  circular  in  outline,  either  black  or 
gray  in  color,  and  about  half  the  size  of  the  head  of  a  pin.  That  of 
the  oyster  shell  species  is  elongated,  pointed  at  one  end,  either 


Fig.  89.  The  San  Jose  Scale. 


3|^BS 

Vf^ 

SB>*'^^. 

^^^bL^ 

mi*  ' 

H*  r 

^^^"^  <  / 

V»'V 

»Hi 

jP^^QbI 

«  > , 

wIk 

Hi 

w^^'* 

m    W'^f' 

If 

ll^^-^JI'       * 

WSf^9wk 

wm' 

4fj^H 

^Af''^       ♦ 

[Vj^  ■'#» ' 

^mt' 

«^S^ 

MR'  •'  1 

wm 

w- 

IuHk^ 

R'/<r 

Fig-.  90.  The  Elm  Scale. 


bro^vn  or  black  in  color,  and  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  scurfy  scale  is  somewhat  fan-shaped,  of  a  pale  gray 
color,  parchment-like,  and  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
The  tulip  scale  is  much  larger  and  more  conspicuous,  being-  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  hemispherical  in  shape,  and  dark 
brown  in  color.     The  cottony  maple  scale  also  is  a  large  and  con- 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


169 


spicuous  form.  Attached  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  female  is 
a  Large  cottony  mass,  containing  the  eggs.  As  the  egg  mass 
increases  in  size,  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  becomes  more 
elevated.  When  full  grown,  the  brown  female  with  the  egg-mass 
protruding  is  about  a  half  inch  in  length.  Another  species  attack- 
ing the  maple  is  known  as  the  woolly  maple  scale  and  differs  from 
the  above  in  that  the  woolly  mass  completely  covers  the  female  and 
her  eggs. 


Fig-.   92.     The   Tulip  Scale. 


Fig,91.     The   Cottony  Maple  Scale. 


Most  scale  insects  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  either 
m.iscible  oil  or  the  lime-sulphur  wash  during  the  dormant  season. 
The  former  will  give  better  results  on  old  and  rough-barked  trees. 
The  important  point  is  to  completely  cover  the   surface  of  the 


170 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


bark  with  the  spray.  Most  of  the  insects,  and  especially  the  San 
Jose  species,  multiply  very  rapidly,  there  being  several  broods  in 
a  season.  The  fruit  trees,  like  the  Apple,  Pear,  Plum,  Peach, 
Hawthorn,  and  Mountain  Ash  are  especially  susceptible  to  the 
attack  of  scale  insects.  Young  trees  should  be  closely  watched, 
for  they  are  often  killed  or  severely  injured  before  the  pest  is 
observed. 

BORERS. 

On  account  of  their  habit  of  feeding  about  the  cambium, 
layer,  the  insects  belonging  to  this  class  are  very  destructive  and 
are  very  difficult  to  control.     There  are  many  different  kinds  of 


Fig.  93.     The  work  of  the  Maple  Borer. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


171 


borers,  each  having  its  favorite  species  or  family  of  trees  for  its 
feeding  ground.  The  Maples,  Poplars,  Locusts,  Elms,  and  fruit 
trees  are  most  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  some  form  of  borer.  As 
a  rule,  their  presence  is  indicated  by  sunken  areas  on  the  bark  and 
sometimes  by  sawdust-like  castings  on  the  ground,  just  below  the 
point  of  attack.  It  is  well  to  carefully  examine  the  trunks  of 
susceptible  trees  twice  a  year,  in  April  and  October,  and  dig  out 
the  borers  with  a  sharp  pocket  knife.  A  flexible  wire  or  a 
common  knitting  needle  may  be  used  where  the  insect  is  located 
far  into  the  wood. 

The  larva  of  the  Leopard  Moth  sometimes  called  the  Imported 
Elm-tree-borer,  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  shade  tree  pests, 
xlround  New  York,  Boston  and  other  cities  along  the  north- 
eastern coast  it  is  becoming  very  troublesome.  Its  habits  are 
somewhat  different  from  other  borers  in  that  it  attacks  the  smaller 


Fig.   94.     Trees   injured   by   the  Leopard   Moth   or 
the  Imported  Elm  Borer. 


branches  at  the  top  of  the  tree,  where  its  presence  is  not  usually 
detected  until  the  affected  branches  have  l)een  killed.     The  infested 


area   of   a   tree   gradually    extends     downward    until    the 


main 


172 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


branches  and  even  the  trunk  become  affected.  Tt  borer  often 
completely  girdles  the  branch  and  consequently  that  part  of  the 
branch  beyond  the  injury  soon  dies.  Trees  affected  with  leopard 
moth  borers  are  strikingly  characteristic  by  their  dead  branches 
at  the  top  of  the  tree.  Most  kinds  of  deciduous  trees  are  subject 
to  the  attack  of  this  pest,  but  the  AVhite  or  American  Elm  has 
suffered  most. 


^HH^f 

^  ^^^^^^aPB^^^y 

^K^^^m^' 

■Hm 

■  m 

fi^m 

■  " 

1 

i§M 

■ 

m  .  - 

^^^^^^1 

Fig.  95.     The  Leopard  Moth  Larva  in  its  burrow.      (Natural  size.) 

The  following  paragraphs  are  copied  from  the  authors'  summary  of 
a  valuable  bulletin  by  Britton  and  Cromie*: — 

*^'The   moths    appear   about   July    first,    the   males   being   very 
common  around  electric  lights,  and  the  females  lay  eggs  singly  or 


*Britton,  W.  E.  and  Cromie, 
Sta.     Bui.   169,  1911. 


G.  A.   The  Leopard  Moth.     Conn.   Agr.  Exp. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  173 

in  groups  of  two,  three  or  four,  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark  or  near 
the  buds.  The  larvae,  hatching  in  a  few  days,  begin  to  tunnel 
in  the  twigs,  and  by  the  end  of  the  season  are  about  one  inch  in 
length.  They  leave  the  small  branches  and  crawl  over  the  bark  to 
enter  larger  ones,  cutting  large  galleries  into  them  and  expelling 
the  frass  through  round  holes,  which  they  soon  close  with  silk  wel^s. 
During  October  the  borers  go  deeper  into  the  wood,  and  remain 
through  the  winter  two  inches  or  more  beneath  the  bark.  They 
pupate  in  their  burrows  the  second  spring,  and  before  the  moth 
emerges  the  pupa  works  itself  partly  out  of  the  opening,  and  the 
aduJt  flies  away,  leaving  the  empty  case  protruding  from  the 
burrow. 

"There  are  few  natural  checks,  only  one  parasite  being  known  in 
this  country  and  four  in  Europe.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
certain  birds,  especially  w^oodpeckers,  prevent  the  spread  of  the 
leopard  moth  in  the  open  country.  Many  larvae  are  doubtless 
killed  by  the  breaking  off  of  the  branches,  which  in  cities  are 
carted  away  and  destroyed. 

"Removing  infested  branches;  injecting  carbon  disulphide 
(bisulphide)  into  the  burrows,  and  stopping  the  opening;  probing 
with  hooked  wire  for  the  larva ;  are  some  of  the  methods  of  control. 

"Planting  species  of  trees  not  badly  infested,  like  Oaks,  Honey 
Locusts  and  Sycamore,  and  especially  those  kinds  that  do  not 
grow  very  large,  and  have  a  smooth  bark;  placing  trees  further 
apart,  so  that  the  larvae  cannot  easily  crawl  from  one  to  the 
other;  and  keeping  the  trees  well  nourished  and  vigorous,  are  the 
chief  preventive  measures.'^ 


174  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


CHAPTER  X 
INSECTICIDES,  FUNGICIDES,  AND  SPRAYING. 
INSECTICIDES. 
The  reader  will  understand  by  this  time  that  there  must  be  two 
distinct  types  of  insecticides:  stomach  poisons  and  contact  insecti- 
cides.    There  are  a  great  many  belonging  to  each  class.     A  large 
number  of   them   are   superfluous,   and  to   avoid   confusion,   only 
those  that  are  necessary  and  in  common  use  are  discussed  here. 

Stomach  Poisons  —  The  stomach  poisons  are  those  that  kill 
by  being  eaten,  and  are  used  for  the  control  of  insects  that  chew 
their  food.  The  most  common  stomach  poisons  are  arsenate  of 
lead  and  Pa^is  green.  The  latter  sometimes  causes  injury  to  the 
foliage  unless  used  in  combination  with  lime.  It  is  generally  used 
in  the  following  proportion: 

Paris   green    1  pound 

Fresh  stone  lime    1  pound 

Water 100  gallons 

The  Paris  green  should  be  mixed  first  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water  to  form  a  thin  paste.  The  lime  also  should  be  slaked  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water.  Both  materials  may  then  be  strained 
into  the  spray  tank  and  the  required  amount  of  water  added. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  on  account  of  its  safeness,  its  sticking  qualities, 
and  its  general  efficiency,  has  become  the  standard  insecticide  for 
insects  that  chew  their  food.  It  may  be  made  up  at  home,  but 
generally  it  is  better  to  buy  it  ready  prepared.  It  comes  in  either 
paste  or  powder  form.  Most  people  prefer  to  buy  the  paste. 
To  prevent  it  from  drying  out,  the  paste  should  be  kept  covered 
with  water.     It  is  generally  used  in   the   following   proportion: 

Arsenate  of  lead  paste 6  to  10  gallons 

Water 100  gallons 

The  paste  should  be  mixed  up  with  about  two  quarts  of  water 
and  then  strained  into  the  tank.  Some  insects  are  harder  to  kill 
than  others  and  should  receive  the  maximum  amount.  Most 
forms,  however,  are  readily  killed  by  using  six  pounds  to  one 
hundred  gallons. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  175 

Contact  Insecticides  —  Insects  that  obtain  their  food  by  piercing 
the  epidermis  and  sucking  the  juices  from  the  plant  tissue,  must 
be  killed  by  contact  and  the  preparations  used  for  the  purpose 
are  called  contact  insecticides.  Such  preparations  are  usually 
caustic  in  character  and  kill  by  irritation  or  by  clogging  the 
breathing  pores  of  the  insect. 

Common  hard  soap  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of 
water,  is  commonly  used  for  plant  lice.  Whale-oil  soap  which 
comes  in  paste  form,  is  usually  preferred  for  this  purpose  and  is 
used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  five  gallons  of  water.  It 
is  also  used  to  some  extent  as  a  dormant  spray  for  scale  insects. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  used  in  the  following  proportion : 

Whale-oil  soap  2  pounds 

AVater    1  gallon 

Either  kind  of  soap  is  more  easily  dissolved  in  hot  water. 

This  preparation  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  where  there  are 
many  trees  to  be  sprayed,  but  when  only  one  or  two  trees  or  a 
few  bushes  are  affected  with  scale  insects,  it  is  a  convenient  remedy 
and  is  not  so  disagreeable  to  apply  as  some  of  the  other  prepara- 
tions. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  probably  the  best  remedy  for  the  control 
of  sucking-insects  when  the  spraying  must  be  done  while  the  tree  is 
in  foliage.  A  stock  solution  may  be  made  up  and  used  when 
required  and  at  any  strength: 

Kerosene 2  gallons 

Hard  soap   }^  pound 

Hot  water    1  gallon 

Cut  the  soap  into  thin  slices,  dissolve  in  the  hot  water,  remove 
from  the  fire  and  pour  it  into  the  kerosene  while  hot.  Churn 
thoroughly,  or  pump  into  itself  with  a  force  pump,  until  a  creamy 
emulsion  is  formed,  which  will  mix  readily  with  cold  water.  For 
use  on  foliage,  dilute  at  the  rate  of  one  to  twelve.  Some  plants 
with  tender  foliage  require  a  weaker  solution.  For  use  on  dormant 
trees,  dilute  at  the  rate  of  one  to  three. 

Tobacco  decoction,  made  by  steeping  one  pound  of  tobacco  stems 
or  waste  in  two  gallons  of  water,  is  a  safe  remedy  for  plant  lice 
on  tender-foliaged  plants. 


176  TREES  IN-  WINTER 

The  lime-sulphur  wash  is  the  standard  remedy  for  the  control  of 
scale  insects  on  fruit  trees.  It  may  be  made  up  at  home,  but  it 
is  disagreeable  and  exacting  work.  It  may  be  purchased  in  con- 
sentrated  form  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per  gallon  and 
is  ready  for  spraying  after  diluting  it  with  eight  parts  of  water. 
In  this  proportion  it  is  used  only  while  the  trees  are  dormant.  It 
has  extremely  caustic  properties  and  corrodes  and  discolors  every- 
thing with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  For  this  reason  it  should 
not  be  used  in  proximity  to  painted  buildings. 

Miscible  or  ''soluUe'  oils  of  which  there  are  many  brands  on 
the  market,  are  useful  and  convenient  preparations  for  the  control 
of  scale  insects.  Compared  with  the  lime  sulphur-wash,  they  are 
less  corrosive,  not  so  disagreeable  to  handle,  and  may  be  safely 
used  about  buildings.  They  may  be  purchased  at  thirty  cents  to 
one  dollar  per  gallon,  depending  upon  the  quantity  required.  They 
should  be  diluted  with  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  fifteen 
and  should  be  used  only  during  the  dormant  season.  The  con- 
tainer should  be  shaken  well  before  drawing  off  the  oil.  A  few 
drops  of  oil  in  a  glass  of  water  should  produce  a  milky  solution. 
If  the  oil  does  not  mix  readily  with  water  as  indicated  by  this  test, 
it  should  not  be  used. 

Carbon  bisulphide  is  a  heavy  volatile  liquid  and  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  control  of  borers  affecting  the  trunk,  and  of  other 
insects  affecting  the  roots  of  trees.  It  readily  evaporates  when 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  fumes  are  poisonous  and  very  inflamable. 
A  teaspoonful  poured  into  the  burrow  of  a  wood  boring  insect,  and 
the  opening  stopped  up  with  wax,  will  usually  kill  the  pest.  The 
fumes  being  heavier  than  air,  settle  to  the  lower  places  and  it  is 
well,  therefore,  to  get  the  chemical  into  the  top  of  the  burrow.  If 
a  tree  trunk  is  badly  infested  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  arrange 
an  oil-cloth  jacket  around  the  trunk,  tying  it  tightly  above  and 
below  the  affected  area.  A  saturated  sponge  holding  about  a  cup- 
ful of  the  liquid  may  be  hung  beneath  the  jacket  and  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  trunk.  The  fumes  will  penetrate  into  all  crevices,  and 
within  twenty-four  hours  the  inclosed  insects  will  be  suffocated. 

FUNGICIDES 

The  use  of  fungicides  is  to  kill  fungus  spores  and  to  prevent 
their  access  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  The  standard  fungicide 
is  Bordeaux  mixture  which  may  be  made  up  as  follows : 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES  177 

r  Copper  sulphate   8     pounds 

^  \  Water 50  gallons 

r  Fresh  stone  lime    8     pounds 

^  ^  Water 50  gallons 

The  copper  sulphate  may  be  dissolved  either  by  the  use  of  hot 
water  or  by  suspending  it  in  a  burlap  sack  at  the  top  of  a  barrel, 
of  cold  water.  The  lime  should  be  slowly  slaked,  using  a  little 
water  at  a  time.  When  both  solutions,  a  and  h,  are  ready,  they 
should  be  poured  simultaneously  into  the  spray  tank.  When 
large  quantities  are  required  it  is  customary  to  make  up  stock 
solutions  of  copper  s-ulphate  and  of  lime,  using  two  pounds  of 
each  to  a  gallon  of  water.  To  make  a  hundred  gallons  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  from  these  stock  solutions  it  will  be  necessary  simply  to 
measure  out  four  gallons  of  each,  dilute  each  with  46  gallons  of 
water  (50 — 4=46),  and  strain  into  the  spray  tank. 

AVhen  a  tree  needs  to  be  sprayed  for  some  leaf-eating  insect 
as  well  as  for  some  disease,  six  to  ten  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
may  be  added  to  every  hundred  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 
There  are  many  brands  of  prepared  Bordeaux  mixture  on  the 
market  and  some  of  them  contain  arsenic,  either  in  the  form  of 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green.  Pyrox  and  Bordeaux-lead  are 
common  examples  of  such  preparations.  They  are  convenient 
remedies  and  are  very  efficient,  but  cost  more  than  the  home-made 
mixture. 

The  commercial  lime-sulphur  wash  Avhich  has  been  discussed 
under  the  heading  of  Insecticides,  is  also  a  good  fungicide.  When 
used  on  Peach  trees  in  the  dormant  condition,  it  may  be  depended 
upon  to  kill  scale  insects  and  at  the  same  time  to  control  the 
disease  known  as  leaf-curl.  It  is  also  being  recommended  as  a 
substitute  for  Bordeaux  mixture  for  spraying  during  the  summer. 
For  spraying  foliage,  however,  it  should  be  diluted  at  the  rate  of 
two  gallons  of  the  wash  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 

SPRAYING 

Most  people  fail  to  spray  for  the  reason  that  they  believe  it  to 
be  a  difficult  and  exacting  operation.  Those  who  have  had  experi- 
ence have  gained  confidence  and  now  regard  the  operation  as  a 
necessary  item  in  their  yearly  routine.    There  are  many  ]-)rofossional 


178  TEEES  IN  WINTER 

sprayers  going  around  the  country  soliciting  contracts  for  this 
kind  of  work.  Most  of  them  are  reliable^  yet  there  are  some  who 
do  not  know  the  first  principles  of  spraying  and  who  have  not 
the  proper  equipment  for  the  kind  of  work  they  undertake.  When 
reliable  people  may  be  engaged  to  do  the  work  at  the  proper  time, 
it  often  would  be  advisable  for  the  property-holder  to  have  his 
spraying  done  by  contract.  The  property-holder,  even  though  he 
should  not  do  his  own  spraying,  should  know  something  about  the 
subject  so  that  he  may  know  whether  his  work  is  being  properly 
done. 

AVhen  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  for  the  control  of  insects- 
that  chew  their  food,  the  spray  should  be  applied  until  it  commences 
to  drip  from  the  foliage.  Even  though  the  foliage  is  not  completely 
covered,  the  insects,  if  they  continue  to  eat,  are  sure  to  find  some 
poison.  In  the  spraying  for  sucking-insects,  on  the  other  hand, 
greater  care  must  be  exercised,  for  the  spray  actually  must  touch 
the  insect.  In  the  application  of  fungicides,  also,  the  whole 
surface  of  the  leaves  must  be  covered  to  prevent  the  access  of  the 
disease  spores. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  spray  with  the  wind.  To  do  this  it 
is  necessary  to  make  a  second  application  after  the  direction  of 
the  wind  has  changed.  With  nozzles  that  make  a  fine  spray, 
it  is  impossible  to  spray  against  even  the  lightest  breeze.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  the  work  must  be  finished  at  one  time 
and  it  is  possible  to  do  so  by  selecting  a  still  day  and  by  using  a 
nozzle  of  the  Bordeaux  type  that  will  produce  a  coarse  spray.  A 
coarse  spray  will  carry  farther,  but  is  more  wasteful  of  material. 

Spraying  Machinery  —  For  the  private  owner  who  has  only  a 
few  trees  to  spray,  a  barrel  outfit  operated  by  hand  and  costing 
about  twenty  to  twenty-five  dollars,  will  answer  the  purpose.  By 
the  use  of  extension  ladders,  extension  rods,  and  long  leads  of 
hose,  it  is  possible  to  spray  the  tallest  trees.  Barrel  outfits 
mounted  on  two-wheel  trucks  may  be  purchased  at  a  small  addi- 
tional cost  and  are  very  handy  on  small  places.  The  small  bucket 
and  knap-sack  outfits  are  useful  for  bushes  and  young  trees,  but 
are  unsuited  to  spraying  mature  trees. 

On  large  estates  a  power  outfit  of  some  kind  will  be  found 
very  useful.  When  fine  nozzles  are  used,  a  three  horse-power 
gasoline  outfit  may  supply  as  many  as  six  leads  of  hose.     Such  an 


I 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


179 


outfit  will  supply  sufficient  pressure  for  the  spraying  of  the  tallest 
trees.    'Where  it  is  desirable  to  reach  the  top  of  tall  trees  without 


Fig.   96.     Spraying-    a    large  Elm    Tree    using    a    hand    pump    and    two 

long    leads    of    hose.      A    very  satisfactory    outfit    where    there    is    danger 

of    disfiguring    buildings    and  where    a   high-pressure    outfit    cannot    be 
used   conveniently. 


180  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

climbing,  a  more  powerful  outfit  will  be  necessary.  A  ten  horse- 
power outfit  will  do  the  work  and  is  very  suitable  for  towns  and 
cities.  Most  municipalities  have  many  trees  in  the  open  that  may 
be  sprayed  from  the  ground  without  fear  of  disfiguring  buildings. 
Spraying  in  this  way  is  decidedly  less  expensive  and  less  dangerous, 
than  where  it  is  necessary  to  climb  the  trees.     A  powerful  outfit 


m 

j^H 

■■■ 

y 

^ 

9 

wS^^ 

m 

wBKk 

1 

flpHK^ 

"^  ^iS^^^^I^I 

^B 

^H^H 

P 

PI 

Fig-.   97.     The   use   of  a  high   pressure   pump   in   spraying   taU  trees. 

may  be  used  for  both  purposes.  When  wanted  for  working  in  the 
vicinity  of  buildings,  it  may  be  adapted  simply  by  changing  the 
nozzles. 

Nozzles  vary  greatly  in  structure  and  adaptability.    When  spray- 
ing at  close  range  a  nozzle  that  will  make  a  fine  mist  or  "fog"  is 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  TREES 


181 


desirable.  Those  of  the  disc  type  are  best  suited  to  the  purpose. 
AVhen  it  is  required  to  throw  a  stream  high  into  the  air  a  nozzle 
of  either  the  ^'Long  Distance"  or  the  Bordeaux  type  will  be  found 
most  useful.     The  "Long  Distance"  nozzle  may  be  acQusted  so 


Fig.  98  An  inexpensive 
Spraying-  Outfit  for  small 
trees  and   shrubs. 


Fig.  99.  The  Bordeaux  Nozzle 
commonly  used  in  spraying 
shade  trees.  It  may  be  adjusted 
to  trow  either  a  straight  stream 
or  a  fan-shaped  spray, 


as  to  regulate  the  size  of  the  stream.  The  Bordeaux  type  (fig.  99) 
may  be  regulated  so  as  to  produce  either  a  straight  stream  or  a 
fan-shaped  spray. 

To  avoid  troublesome  "blow-outs"  it  is  well  to  use  long  shank 
couplings  and  two  clamps  on  each  section  of  the  coupling. 

Rubber  hose  of  the  best  quality  is  necessary  for  high-pressure 
worlv.  The  half -inch  size  is  sufficient  for  close  work^  but  for  long 
distance  work  it  is  better  to  use  a  larger  size.  It  should  be  strong 
enough  to  stand  a  pressure  of  at  least  two  hundred  pounds,  al- 
though for  close  work  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  maintain  a  pressure 
of  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds. 

Most  spraying  outfits  are  supplied  with  mechanical  agitators  to 
insure  the  discharge  of  the  mixture  at  uniform  strength.  On  hand 
outfits  they  are  usually  attached  to  and  operated  with  the  handle 
of  the  pump.  Such  agitators  seldom  furnish  sufficient  agitation, 
especially  when  there  is  only  one  nozzle  in  operation  and  the 
handle  is  necessarily  moving  slowly.  For  the  spraying  of  aresnate 
of  lead  that  quickly  settles,  it  is  safer  to  use  an  old  garden  hoe 
with  which  the  man  who  operates  the  pump  may  keep  the  mixture 


182  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

thoroughly  agitated.  The  best  power  outfits  are  supplied  with 
propellor  agitators.  These  consist  of  shafts  on  which  are  fixed 
two  or  three  propellers  like  those  used  on  small  boats. 


PART  II.— THE  IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES 
EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS 

Before  considering  the  individual  trees  in  detail  it  seems  de- 
sirable to  give  a  general  discussion  of  the  different  terms  used  as 
headings  in  the  description  of  the  species. 

Name  —  A  common  English  name  heads  the  description  of 
each  tree  and  this  name  is  used  throughout  the  book  as  the 
designation  of  a  particular  species.  The  same  form  may  be  known 
in  different  localities  by  several  entirely  different  common  names. 
Thus  the  Tupelo  in  some  places  is  called  only  Pepperidge,  in 
others,  Sour  Gum  or  Black  Gum.  After  consultation  with  the 
literature  the  name  Tupelo  was  chosen  as  being  somewhat  more 
desirable  for  the  whole  of  New  England  than  the  other  names 
given  in  smaller  type  as  synonyms.  Often  several  common  names 
may  be  in  about  equally  frequent  use.  There  is  in  general,  only 
one  scientific  name  at  present  sanctioned  by  botanical  authorities 
and  this  is  placed  first,  followed  by  the  Latin  synonyms  in  italics. 

Habit  —  By  the  word  habit,  we  denote  the  general  appearance 
of  a  tree  seen  as  a  whole.  A  tree  strictly  speaking  is  generally 
considered  as  a  woody  growth  having  an  undivided  trunk  at  the 
base  and  rising  to  at  least  twice  the  height  of  a  man.  A  shrub 
on  the  other  hand  is  low-growing  and  may  branch  from  the  very 
base.  No  hard  and  fast  line,  however,  can  be  drawn  between  a 
tree  and  a  shrub.  Many  trees  at  the  limit  of  their  range  or 
under  unfavorable  conditions  are  reduced  to  the  form  and  dimen- 
sions of  a  shrub  and  some  forms  growing  as  shrubs  in  New  England 
become  trees  in  states  outside  this  group.  A  young  tree  sometimes 
resembles  a  shrub,  but  is  more  ra])id  in  growth  and  generally  does 
not  bear  fruit  until  it  has  reached  a  considerable  size.  Of  the 
forms  on  the  borderline  between  trees  and  shrubs  only  those  have 
been  treated  that  have  demanded  recognition  on  account  of  their 
commonness  or  their  relationship  with  other  forms. 


184  .  TREES  IN  WINTER 

Two  general  habit  types  are  recognized  —  the  spreading  and  the 
erect  —  often  termed  deliquescent  and  excurrent  respectively.  The 
former  is  well  represented  by  the  Apple  (p.  353)  and  White  Elm 
(p.  327)  and  the  latter  by  the  Evergreens  and  those  of  the  Poplars 
that  form  narrow  conical  heads  (p.  261-263).  By  its  more  erect 
habit  of  growth  the  Sweet  Cherry  (p.  369)  is  readily  distinguished 
from  the  Sour  Cherry  (p.  371)  and  in  like  manner  the  Pear 
(p.  351)  from  the  Apple  (p.  353).  It  is  these  habit  differences 
that  form  the  most  ready  means  of  separating  the  contrasted 
trees  just  mentioned  which  may  closely  resemble  each  other  in  twig 
characters.  The  angle  which  the  branches  make  with  the  trunk 
is  frequently  a  diagnostic  character  of  considerable  value.  For 
example,  the  ascending  and  gracefully  outward  curving  limbs  of 
the  American  White  Elm  (p.  327)  stand  in  contrast  with  the 
sharply  divergent  limbs  of  the  English  Elm  (p.  325).  Likewise 
the  horizontal  branches  of  the  Tupelo  (p.  421)  and  the  strongly 
pendant  low^r  limbs  of  the  Swamp  White  Oak  (p.  305)  are  char- 
acteristic of  these  species.  The  relative  thickness  of  the  branchlets 
contrasted  in  the  Sweet  Cherry  (p.  369)  and  the  Black  Birch 
(p.  281)  and  the  arrangement  of  the  branchlets  whether  opposite 
or  alternate  and  whether  erect  or  drooping,  may  further  be  men- 
tioned as  habit  characters. 

As  one  becomes  more  familiar  with  trees  in  their  winter  aspect, 
the  number  that  cannot  be  recognized  at  a  distance  becomes  greatly 
diminished.  We  come  to  know  trees  by  hardly  definable  traits, 
much  as  we  recognize  our  friends  at  a  distance  by  some  peculiarity 
of  form  or  gait.  Watching  the  trees  from  a  car  window  is  a 
great  help  in  acquiring  this  familiarity  with  the  habit  characters. 
The  method  of  branching  and  other  features  included  in  the  habit 
do  not  furnish  such  precise  marks  as  do  the  twigs,  and  cannot 
therefore  be  of  much  value  in  a  descriptive  key.  In  fact  the 
habit  varies  considerably  among  individual  trees  of  the  same 
species,  no  two  trees  having  exactly  the  same  method  of  branching. 
Moreover  trees  grown  in  woods  in  company  with  other  trees  are 
prevented  by  lateral  shading  from  developing  their  normal  form 
and  produce  tall  trunks  with  but  little  branching.  On  the  other 
hand  trees  apart  from  other  trees  have  usually  been  planted  for 


IDENTIFICATION  OP  TREES  185 

ornament  or  have  originally  grown  in  woods  but  have  been  left 
isolated  by  the  cutting  down  of  their  neighbors.  In  the  latter 
case  the  habit  will  be  more  or  less  that  of  a  forest-grown  tree 
dependent  upon  the  age  at  which  the  conditions  of  light  and 
shade  were  altered  (see  lower  habit  picture  p.  329).  In  the 
former  case  the  top  of  the  young  tree  may  have  been  cut  in  the 
process  of  transplanting  causing  an  increased  branching  at  the 
point  of  cutting  and  the  lower  limbs  may  have  been  trimmed  off, 
giving  a  greater  show  of  trunk.  These  mutilations,  however,  have 
less  influence  upon  the  outline  of  the  head  or  crown  than  might 
be  imagined  since  the  tree  is  generally  able  to  accommodate  itself 
to  such  accidents  as  those  mentioned  and  express  its  individuality 
despite  them.  The  age  of  the  tree  is  also  an  important  factor 
in  the  outline,  young  specimens  being  in  general  narrower  and 
more  conical  than  in  later  life  while  those  in  old  age  may  have 
lost  shape  through  ice  storms,  high  winds  and  the  attacks  of  fungi. 

So  far  as  possible  the  photographs  may  have  been  taken  from 
mature  specimens  growing  in  the  open  and  only  those  have  been 
chosen  which  have  been  considered  to  present  an  appearance  typical 
of  the  species.  They  will  help  one  to  form  a  mental  picture  of 
those  generalized  features  of  a  tree  in  the  landscape  which  may 
be  recognized  at  a  distance,  but  w^hich  are  difficult  of  analysis. 

Bark  —  Although  it  is  upon  the  appearance  of  the  bark  more 
than  upon  any  other  character  that  the  woodsman  depends  in  his 
recognition  of  timber  trees,  the  bark  shares  with  the  habit  the 
misfortune  of  being  difficult  of  precise  description.  A  study  of 
the  photographs,  however,  in  connection  Avith  the  description  of 
the  color  and  texture  will  enable  one  to  recognize  a  large  propor- 
tion of  our  trees  by  the  appearance  of  the  bark  alone.  They 
have  been  taken  from  mature  trees  of  moderate  size  which  have 
developed  the  characteristic  sculpturing  of  the  bark  rather  than 
from  those  of  larger  size  which  are  less  frequently  seen.  A  tape 
measure  surrounding  the  trunk  or  in  some  instances  a  penknife 
stuck  into  the  bark  may  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  size 
of  the  markings  on  the  trunk.  The  heading  "Bark"  is  used 
throughout  the  descriptions  in  reference  to  the  trunk  and  larger 
limbs  and  not  to  the  twigs  which  are  described  under  another 
heading. 


186  TREES  IN-  WINTER 

The  color  of  the  outer  bark  is  an  important  mark  of  distinction 
and  is  the  chief  means  of  separating  the  different  species  of  the 
Birches  (p.  281-291).  The  color  and  taste  of  the  inner  layers 
of  the  bark  are  in  some  cases  also  characteristic.  The  Black 
Oak  for  example  is  best  distinguished  from  other  Oaks  by  the 
yellow  and  intensely  bitter  inner  bark.  Similarly,  the  Black  Birch, 
the  Sassafras  and  the  genus  Prunus  including  the  Cherries  have 
b'arks  with  characteristic  flavors.  The  swamp-loving  Poison 
Sumach  (p.  395)  is  the  only  poisonous  tree  in  New  England  so 
that  after  this  shrubby  form  is  known  there  need  be  no  fear  of 
tasting  bark  and  twigs  of  any  unknown  tree-like  species. 

The  bark  varies  in  character  according  to  the  age  of  the  tree. 
In  the  young  tree  the  bark  is  smooth,  but,  as  the  trunk  expands 
from  the  growth  of  the  wood  within,  the  covering  of  dead  bark 
outside  is  forced  to  crack  in  a  variety  of  ways  giving  rise  to 
characteristic  fissures  and  ridges  which  become  more  prominent 
as  the  tree  grows  older.  The  bark  of  few  trees  such  as  the  Beech 
(p.  295)  and  the  American  Hornbeam  (p.  279)  remain  smooth, 
their  outer  layers  expanding  with  the  growth  of  the  tree.  The  barks 
of  others  as  the  Paper  and  Yellow  Birch  (p.  283)  stretch  and  peel 
off  in  thin  papery  layers.  In  the  Birches  (p.  289)  and  Cherries 
(p.  369)  the  breathing  pores  (lenticels)  become  horizontally  elon- 
gated to  form  narrow  transverse  streaks  which  are  characteristic  for 
these  forms.  When  ridges  or  scales  are  formed  they  may  be  close 
and  firm  and  with  difficulty  removed  from  the  trunk  as  is  the  case 
with  the  bark  in  the  Black  Oak  group  or,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
may  be  easily  rubbed  off  as  are  the  scales  of  the  bark  of  the 
White  Oak  and  of  most  members  of  the  White  Oak  group.  Bark 
of  this  latter  type  is  called  flaky  in  our  descriptions  and  this 
distinction  between  barks  that  are  flaky  and  those  that  are  not 
flaky  is  of  considerable  importance  in  classification.  To  avoid 
confusion  little  notice  is  taken  of  the  minute  scales  that  are 
likely  to  occur  on  the  surface  of  both  types  of  bark.  The  bark 
may  come  off  in  large  sheets  as  in  the  Shag-bark  Hickory  (p.  269) 
and  the  Sycamore  (p.  349),  and  the  ridges  may  be  long  as  in 
the  Chestnut  (p.  297)  or  short  and  run  together  to  fonn  more 
or  less  perfect  diamond-shaped  areas  as  in  the  White  Ash  (p.  423) 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES  187 

but  these  as  well  as  other  differences  in  the  sculpturing  are  shown 
in  the  photographs  and  do  not  require  further  discussion. 

Tivigs  —  The  unqualified,  word  twig  refers  in  the  descriptions 
to  the  growth  of  the  past  season  only.  Older  twigs  and  branch- 
lets  are  the  designations  employed  for  the  small  growth  of  several 
seasons.  The  Horse-chestnut  (fig.  20)  has  been  taken  as  a  con- 
venient form  to  illustrate  the  various  markings  found  on  the  twig 
and  is  discussed  on  page  39. 

In  some  species,  such  as  the  Black  Birch  (p.  281)  and  the 
cultivated  Cherry  (p.  3G9),  a  sharp  distinction  can  be  drawn 
between  rapidly-grown  long  shoots  which  have  elongated  inter- 
nodes  and  continue  the  growth  of  the  twig  and  slowly  grown 
short  spurs  which  have  greatly  abbreviated  internodes  and  crowded 
leaf-scars.  The  fruit-spurs  of  the  Apple  (p.  353)  and  Pear 
(p.  351)  are  of  this  latter  type. 

Of  the  distinctive  'characters  given  under  the  heading  twigs  may 
be  mentioned  the  relative  thickness,  whether  stout  or  slender,  the 
presence  or  absence  of  thorns  or  prickles,  the  color,  the  taste  as 
indicated  under  the  discussion  of  the  bark,  and  the  character  of 
the  surface,  whether  smooth  or  more  or  less  covered  with  hairs. 
Twigs  are  called  hairy  when  the  hairs  are  individually  distinct, 
downy  when  they  are  fine  and  numerous,  and  woolly  or  cottony 
when  they  are  twisted  together  into  a  more  or  less  felt-like  mass, 
but  these  distinctions  cannot  be  always  sharply  drawn.  A  twig 
if  smooth  may  be  dull  or  shiny  in  appearance.  The  lenticels  are  of 
most  distinctive  value  in  those  forms  like  the  Birches  (p.  289),  in 
which  they  become  horizontally  elongated  with  age.  The  color, 
size  and  shape  of  the  pith  are  often  characteristic  as  seen  in  the 
wide  salmon-colored  pith  of  the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  (p.  381) 
and  the  star-shaped  pith  in  the  Oaks  and  to  a  less  degree  in  the 
Poplars  (fig.  100).  The  pith,  however,  frequently  varies  consider- 
ably in  color  in  a  given  species.  Some  few  trees  have  their  pith 
separated  by  hollow  chambers  such  as  the  Hackberry  and  the 
Butternut  (fig.  101)  or  have  solid  pith  but  with  woody  cross 
partitions  such  as  the  Tupelo. 

Leaf -scars  —  The  arrangement  of  the  leaf-scars  form  primary 
divisions  in  the  classification.     They  may  be  opposite  with   two 


188  TREES  IN  WINTER 

scars  at  a  node  as  in  the  Horse-chestnut,  or  alternate  with  only 
one  scar  at  the  node  as  in  the  majority  of  species.  Alternate  leaf- 
scars  may  be  arranged  along  the  twig  in  two  longitudinal  rows 
when  they  are  said  to  be  2-ranhed,  as  in  the  Mulberry  (fig.  103), 
or  in  several  rows  when  they  are  more  than  2-ranked  as  in  the 
Poplars  (fig.  100).  Twigs  sometimes  if  rapidly  grown  have  the 
leaf-scars  which  are  normally  opposite  pulled  apart  to  appear  al- 
ternate, but  the  typical  condition  will  be  found  on  other  parts  of 
the  tree.  A  few  species  like  the  Chestnut  sometimes  take  the 
2-ranked,  and  sometimes  the  more  than  2-ranked  position,  and 
the  number  of  ranks  in  other  forms  may  be  at  times  somewhat 
obscured  by  a  twisting  of  the  twig.  The  distinctions  in  the  main, 
however,  hold  good  and  where  a  doubt  is  likely  to  occur  in  regard 
to  the  arrangement,  a  place  has  been  made  in  the  key  for  the 
species  in  both  the  2-ranked  and  the  more  than  2-ranked  groups. 

The  size  and  shape  of  leaf-scars  are  important  factors  in  identi- 
fication. They  may  be  very  narrow  as  in  the  Pear  and  their 
upper  margins  may  be  flat  or  convex  as  in  the  Black  Ash  (p.  427) 
or  deeply  notched  as  in  the  White  Ash  (p.  423)  or  form  a  band 
nearly  surrounding  the  bud  as  in  the  Sycamore  (p.  349).  They 
may  become  dingy  and  inconspicuous  or  be  sharply  distinct 
by  color  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  twig.  Thus  the  Elms  and 
the  Poplars  have  their  leaf-scars  covered  with  a  light-colored  cork- 
like layer  which  makes  them  conspicuous  irrespective  of  their  size. 
Leaf-scars  may  be  level  with  the  twig  or  more  or  less  raised  with 
tbeir  surfaces  parallel  with  the  twig  or  making  various  angles 
with  it  up  to  a  right  angle.  Ridges  in  some  cases  run  down 
the  twig  from  the  base  and  corners  of  the  leaf-scar. 

At  the  bases  of  the  leaves  of  some  species  a  pair  of  small  leaflets 
called  stipules  are  regularly  formed  and  leave,  at  the  fall  of  the 
leaf,  more  or-  less  definite  stipule-scars  at  either  side  of  the  leaf- 
scar  as, shown  in  the  Carolina  Poplar  (fig.  100). 

The  number,  the  size,  the  relation  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf- 
scar  whether  sunken  or  projecting,  and  the  distribution  of  the 
bundle-scars  form  important  points  of  distinction.    When  they  are 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES  189 

indistinct,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  they  may  be  revealed 
if  a  thin  slice  is  taken  off  the  surface  of  the  leaf-scar. 
This  surface  section  must  be  very  thin,  however,  since 
the  number  of  bundle-scars  exposed  by  a  deep  cut  is 
often  different  from  that  on  the  surface,  and  this  latter 
number  is  the  one  used  in  the  keys  and  descriptions.  A 
distinction  is  made  between  a  group  in  which  the 
bundle-scars  form  a  single  line  and  a  second  group  in 
which  they  are  variously  scattered  and  grouped  or  in 
a  double  line. 

Buds  —  In  regard  to  their  position  buds  are  ter- 
— 5X  minal  or  lateral.  Buds  produced  at  or  near  the  nodes 
but  not  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf-scar  are  called  accessory 
buds.  Of  these  there  are  two  kinds:  Superposed  buds 
located  above  the  axillary  buds  and  collateral  buds 
located  at  either  side  of  the  axillary  buds.  The  former 
are  shown  in  the  Butternut  (fig.  101)  and  the  latter  in 
the  Red  Maple  (fig.  102).  Classified  according  to  what 
they  produce  there  are  flower  buds  which  contain  the 
rudiments  of  flowers,  leaf  buds  which  contain  rudiments 
of  leaves,  and  mixed  buds  which  produce  both  flowers 
and  leaves.  Flower  buds  are  generally  stouter  than  leaf 
buds. 
-?  Most  species  by  the  end  of  the  growing  season  have 
o-fcaroiTna^-^^^"^^^  terminal  buds  which  remain  through  the  winter 
sx— supuie  ^^^  ^^®  destined  to  continue  the  growth  the  following 
p_star-^^^'  spi'i^g-  I^  some  species,  however,  such  as  the  Mulberry 
shaped  Pith(fig,  103)the  terminal  bud  together  with  the  tip  of  the 
twig  dies  away  and  drops  off  before  the  beginning  of  winter 
leaving  a  small  scar  at  the  end  of  the  twig.  The  presence  or 
absence  of  the  terminal  bud  is  a  very  valuable  point  of  distinction 
and  is  used  throughout  in  the  keys.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  always 
possible  at  a  cursory  glance  to  say  whether  the  terminal  bud  is 
present  or  absent  and  a  hand-lens  must  generally  be  used  for  an 
accurate  determination  of  this  point.  In  the  Mulberry  figured, 
the  self-pruning  scar  formed  by  the  dropping  off  of  the  terminal 
bud  is  perched  on  the  tip  of  the  twig  with  the  topmost  lateral  bud 
obviously  in  the  axil  of  the  last  leaf -scar.     Frequently,  however,. 


190 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


tr 


the  self-pruning  scar  may  be  nearer  the  lateral  bud  which  bends  in 
and  gives  the  appearance  of  being  terminal.  The  presence  of  a 
leaf-scar  below  it  shows  that  it  is  in  fact  axillary, 
but  since  leaf-scars  are  sometimes  present  toward 
the  end  of  twigs  without  buds  in  their  axils  the 
presence  of  the  self-pruning  scar  at  the  twig  end  must 
be  used  as  the  decisive  sign  that  the  terminal  bud  is 
really  absent. 

Aside  from  the  color,  the  presence  or  absence  of 
hairs,  stickiness,  fragrance  and    other    such    surface 
characters,  the  position  of  the  buds  in  relation  to  the 
twig  may   be   of   importance.      Buds   that   lie   close 
up  against  the  twig  as  those  of  the  Small-toothed 
Aspen     (p.  255)  are   called   appressed,   while   those 
that  project  more  or  less  away  from 
the  twig   as  those  of  the   Carolina 
Poplar  (fig.  100)are  called  divergent. 
In  the  Common  Locust  and  a  few 
other    forms    the    buds    are    sunken 
below  the  surface  of  the  twig,  and 
can  be  found   only  by   cutting  the 
twig   lengthwise   through   the   leaf- 
Fig,  101.  Twig  scar. 

of   Butternut.  

tr— terminai^^  The  characters  of  the  bud-scales  Fig!  102.  Twig  of 
ax-axiiiaryj^^-  of  most  importance  are  the  shape,  .^l^^^^n^^y  bud. 
sp— Superposed  the  number  visible  in  the  unmutil-  ci— coUaterai 

accessory  bud.  accessory  bud. 

p— chambered    arrangement  —  whether  alternate  or 

opposite  —  and  the  number  of  ranks  they  f onn  on 
the  bud. 

Fruit  —  The  fruit  generally  forms  a  good  means  of  identi- 
fication when  it  can  be  found.  Unfortunately  there  are  a  number 
of  limitations  to  its  use  for  this  purpose.  In  the  first  place  many 
species  of  trees  do  not  fniit  every  year,  and  it  may  happen  that 
the  species  under  examination  is  not  in  its  fruiting  period  and 
consequently  all  the  trees  of  the  region  will  fail  to  show  fruit. 
Again,  in  some  species  such  as  the  ilsh  the  sexes  are  separate  and 
consequently  only  female  trees  can  ever  be  expected  to  bear  fruit. 
The  fruit  generally  does  not  remain  on  the  tree  throughout  the 
winter  but  if  the  tree  is  sufficiently  isolated  from  other  species, 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES  191 

a  careful  searcli  on  the  ground  will  often  be  rewarded  b}'  the 
finding  of  specimens  of  fruit  that  one  can  feel  sure  came  from 
the  tree  in  question.  However,  some  species  such  as  the  Poplars 
and  the  Red  and  Silver  Maples  scatter  their  fruit  early  in  spring, 
and  fmiting  material  of  such  forms  in  consequence  is  not  to  be 
looked  for  in  winter.  The  immature  fruit  of  some  species  may  be 
found  on  the  tree  in  winter  and  be  of  value  in  identification. 
Thus  the  presence  of  young  acorns  on  an  Oak  in  winter  shows 
that  it  belongs  to  the  Black  Oak  group. 

The  staminate  flowering  clusters  are  of  similar 
diagnostic  value  in  certain  groups,  their  presence 
or  absence,  for  example,  separating  the  American 
Hornbeam  from  the  Hop  Hornbeam. 

Comparisons  —  Under  this  heading  are  con- 
trasted the  difi^erent  species  that  are  considered 
likely  to  be  confused.  It  is  believed  that  the  in- 
formation in  this  section  will  prove  more  valuable 
to  one  with  some  knowledge  of  trees  than  the  more 
detailed  descriptions  first  given. 

Distribution  —  The  habitat  first  discussed  under 

T^-     mo  ^io.  r.f  ^liis    heading    shows    in   what   kind   of    locations 

Muiberry.^_^^^^    as    to    soil,    moisture    and    exposure    the    species 

bud   often  mis-  normally  arrows.    The  information  mav  be  of  iden- 

taken  for  a  ter-     .  ,        ^ 

minai  bud.  tificational  value  by  elimination.    Thus  if  one  finds 

sc  —  self-pruning  -^ 

scar  left  by  fall  a  ccdar-like  tree  on  a  hillside  pasture  one  can  be 

of  real  terminal  ^ 

bud  and  tip  of  gure  it  is  not  a  Coast  White  Cedar  since  this  latter 

twig-. 

species  grows  only  in  swamps.  In  like  manner  the  geographical 
limits  may  assist  in  identification;  a  Pine  found  growing  wild  in 
Rhode  Island  or  Connecticut,  for  example,  could  not  be  the  Jack 
Pine  since  this  is  a  northern  form  found  native  only  in  the  northern 
New  England  states.  Although  some  cultivated  trees  have  escaped 
from  cultivation,  an  introduced  tree  is  generally  characterized 
by  the  places  in  which  it  is  found  growing. 

Wood  —  Under  this  heading  the  information  given  in  regard  to 
the  characters  of  the  wood  and  the  economic  value  of  the  species 
is  of  practically  no  value  for  purposes  of  identification  of  standing 
timber,  but  may  prove  of  general  interest  to  the  student  of  trees. 


192  TREES  IN  WINTER 

ANALYTICAL  KEY 

METHOD   OF   USE 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  appearance  of  the  bark  and  the  method 
of  branching  are  almost  exclusively  depended  upon  by  the  experi- 
enced woodsman  in  recognition  of  species,  these  characters  are 
difficult  of  precise  description  and  not  adapted  to  use  in  a  key. 
The  twigs  therefore  with  the  scaly  buds  and  leaf-scars  are  used,  as  a 
basis  of  the  following  keys.  The  word  "twig"  in  the  sense  here 
used,  it  should  be  remembered,  denotes  the  growth  of  the  past 
season  only,  and  the  word  "bark"  refers  to  the  bark  of  the  trunk 
and  older  limbs  and  not  of  the  twigs  or  branchlets.  The  student 
should  read  the  foregoing  section  and  note  the  limitation  of  terms 
and  characters  used  in  the  following  pages. 

Before  attempting  to  identify  an  unknown  tree  it  is  necessary 
to  have  good  material  to  work  with.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
the  twigs  selected  are  normal  in  appearance,  being  neither  abnor- 
mally stunted  in  growth  nor  unusually  elongated  as  are  twigs  on 
young  sprouts.  Frequently  the  species  may  be  determined  by  an 
inspection  of  the  twigs  alone  but  notes  on  the  character  of  the 
bark  and  the  habit  of  growth  as  well  as  specimens  of  the  fruit  will 
generally  be  found  useful  and  sometimes  necessary. 

In  the  key  a  choice  is  given  between  two  paragraphs  preceded 
by  the  same  number.  This  choice  leads  to  a  new  number  or  to  the 
name  of  the  species  followed  by  the  page  where  a  detailed 
description  of  the  tree  may  be  found.  The  White  Ash  may  be 
used  to  show  the  method  of  procedure.  Starting  with  N'o.  1  we 
have  the  choice  between  trees  with  "leaves  persistent  and  green 
throughout  winter"  and  trees  with  "leaves  7iot  persistent  and  green 
throughout  winter."    We  choose  the  latter  and  this  takes  us  to  No. 

11  where  the  decision  must  be  made  between  "leaf-scars  opposite 
or  in  3's"  and  "leaf-scars  alternate."  The  leaf-scars  on  the  Ash 
are  opposite  and  we  take  the  first  11  and  are  led  to  No.  12.     At 

12  we  have  the  alternative  between  "leaf-scars,  or  some  of  them,  3 
at  a  node"  and  "leaf-scars  always  2  at  a  node."  The  first  pair 
of  contrasting  characters  mentioned  are  always  the  most  important. 
The  constant  presence  in  the  Ash  of  two  leaf-scars  at  a  node  is 
sufficient  to  cause  us  to  choose  the  second  12,  and  our  choice  is 
corroborated  by  the  position  of  the  bundle-scars  and  by  the  presence 
of  a  terminal  bud,  so  we  pass  to  13.     The  upper  lateral  buds  of 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES  193 

the  Ash  are  not  covered  by  persistent  bases  of  leaf-stalks  and  there 
are  2  or  more  pairs  of  scales  to  the  leaf  buds,  we  therefore  pass 
to  14.  The  relatively  small  size  of  the  buds  and  their  freedom 
from  stickiness  takes  us  to  15  where  the  number  of  the  bundle- 
scars  and  the  other  characters  given  show  us  that  we  have  in  hand 
a  twig  of  one  of  the  Ashes.  We  now  turn  to  N"o.  165  and  confirm 
our  determination  of  the  genus  by  reading  the  general  description 
of  the  Ashes.  To  find  out  which  Ash  we  are  dealing  with  we 
procede  with  the  key  of  the  Ashes  and,  knowing  that  the  leaf-scars 
in  our  specimens  are  deeply  concave  on  their  upper  margins,  we 
conclude  that  we  have  the  White  Ash  {Fraxinus  americana). 
At  page  422  we  find  a  detailed  description  with  photographic 
illustrations  of  this  species  and  may  learn  the  winter  characters 
of  the  tree  not  already  given  in  the  key.  If  the  description  and 
photographs  do  not  correspond  to  the  tree  under  investigation,  we 
know  that  we  have  gone  astray  at  some  point  in  the  key,  and 
turning  back  we  repeat  the  analysis  taking  if  need  be  the  other 
alternative  of  a  pair  where  the  choice  had  been  doubtful. 

The  meaning  of  unfamiliar  terms  may  generally  be  found  in  the 
glossary.  Often,  however,  the  photograph  offers  a  better  explana- 
tion. Thus  in  distinguishing  the  Carolina  from  the  Lombardy 
Poplar,  the  word  "spire-shaped"  as  applied  to  the  habit,  can  best 
be  understood  by  reference  to  the  picture  of  the  latter  species. 
"WTien  a  choice  within  a  number  seems  impossible  from  the  infor- 
mation available,  trial  should  be  made  of  both  contrasting  para- 
graphs. In  the  key  to  the  Oaks,  for  example,  the  character  of 
the  bark  —  whether  flaky  or  not  flaky  —  is  used  as  a  distinguishing 
mark.  AYith  only  the  twig  at  hand,  it  may  still  be  possible  to  trace 
the  name  by  trying  the  tree  first  under  "bark  flaky"  and  if  this 
does  not  lead  to  the  correct  name,  then  under  "bark  not  flaky." 
It  might  seem  needless  to  suggest  that  both  the  contrasted  parts 
of  each  number  encountered  should  be  read  but  work  with  students 
has  shown  that  such  a  suggestion  may  be  useful. 

Sometimes  a  tree  is  variable  in  the  characters  used  m  the  key. 
Thus  the  Chestnut  has  terminal  buds  sometimes  present  on  the  twigs 
though  they  are  generally  absent.  In  such  cases,  however,  and 
where  there  is  a  legitimate  doubt  as  to  whether  the  tree  should  be 
placed  in  the  first  or  the  second  group,  it  has  generally  been  placed 
in  both  so  that  either  of  the  two  choices  should  lead  to  the  correct 


194  TREES  IN  WINTER 

name.  The  determination  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  ter- 
minal bud  is  perhaps  the  greatest  pitfall  likely  to  be  found  in  the 
use  of  the  key,  but  should  give  little  difficulty  if  the  discussion 
in  the  introduction  is  understood  and  the  terminal  scar  is  looked 
for  with  the  aid  of  a  hand-lens. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  195 


KEY  TO  GENERA  AND  SPECIES 


1.     Leaves  persistent  and  green  throughout  winter   (Evergreens)    ...2 

1.  Leaves   not   persistent   and   green   throughout    winter    (dead   leaves 
often   persistent    in   the   Oaks    and   Beeches) .    11 

2.  Leaves  broad,  prominently  spiny-margined.     Holly  (Ilex  opaca)  p.396 

2.  Leaves   narrow,    often   minute   and    scale-like;    Conifers    (i.e.    cone- 
bearing  trees) 3 

3.  Leaves,    except    scale-leaves,    needle-shaped,    in    definite,    generally 
sheathed  clusters  on  the  sides  of  the  branches Pine  (Pinus)  85 

3.  Leaves,   not   in  definite  clusters    4 

4.  Leaves  opposite  or  in  3's,  therefore  2  or  3  at  a  node    5 

4.     Leaves  alternate,  scattered,  therefore  only  1  at  a  node   8 


5.  Leaves  whorled  in  3's,  all  alike,  whitened  above  and  green  below, 
awl-shaped,  sharp-pointed  and  spreading;  fruit  bluish,  berry-like; 
a  shrub  or  low  tree.  (See  also  juvenile  condition  of  Red  Cedar)  .  . 
Common  Juniper  (Juniperus  communis)  p.244 

5.  Leaves  opposite  in  4  ranks,  minute,  scale-like,  closely  overlapping  6 

6.  Young  twigs  prominently  flattened  and  forming  a  flat,  2-ranked, 
fan-shaped  spray  often  mistaken  for  the  true  leaves  which  are 
minute  and  of  two  shapes,  those  on  edges  of  twig  being  narrower, 
those  on  flat  sides  being  broader  and  more  abruptly  pointed  with 
each    leaf   generally    showing   a   conspicuous    raised   glandular   dot; 

fruit  a  thin-scaled,  oblong,  woody  cone 

Arbor  Vitae  (Thuja  occidentalisj  p.242 

6.  Young  twigs   not   prominently   flattened;   fruit   spherical    7 

7.  Spray  somewhat  fan-shaped;  young  twigs  not  prominently  4-angled; 
leaves    all    alike    in    shape,    some    of    them    with    prominent    raised 

glandular   dot   on   back;    fruit    a   spherical   woody   cone 

Coast  AVliite  Cedar  (Chamaecyparis  thyoides)  p.240 

7.  Spray  not  fan-shaped;  young  twigs  with  typical  leaves  are  prom- 
inently 4-angled;  leaves  without  conspicuous  glandular  dots,  of  two 
kinds;  (a)  the  juvenile  form  —  awl-shaped,  spiny-pointed  and 
spreading,  in  2's  or  3's  at  a  node  and  resembling  leaves  of  Common 
Juniper,  the  usual  leaf  form  on  young  trees  but  generally  to  be 
found  on  some  parts  of  older  trees;   (b)  the  typical  form  —  smaller, 

scale-like  and   closely  appressed;   fruit  bluish,   berry-like 

Red  Cedar   (Juniperus  vir giniana)  p.246 

8.  Leaves  distinctly  flattened    9 

8.  Leaves  not  distinctly  flattened,  needle-shaped,  4-angled,  sessile  on 
projections    of    the    bark Spruce    (PiceaJ    91 

9.  Leaf  about  1  cm.  long  with  definite  leaf-stalk,  leaving  prominently 
projecting  scar  when   detached.     Hemlock   (Tsuga  canadensis)  p.238 

9.  Leaf  about  2  cm.  or  more  long,  without  leaf-stalk,  leaving  a  flat 
or  only  slightly  raised  scar  when   detached    10 

10.     Buds  small,  nearly  spherical  to  broadly  ovate,  their  scales  covered 

and  glued  together  by  resinous  coating;  leaf-scars  flat 

Balsam  Fir  (Ahies  halsamea)  p.236 

10.  Buds  larger,  narrow  conical,  without  resinous  coating;  leaf-scars 
slightly  raised Ooug;las  Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  p.234 

11.  Leaf-scars  opposite  or  in  3's,  therefore  2  or  3  at  a  node   12 

11.  Leaf-scars  alternate,  therefore  only  1  at  a  node    16 

12.  Leaf-scars  or  some  of  them  3  at  a  node;  bundle-scars  in  an 
ellipse;  terminal  bud  absent    Catalpa  (Catalpa)  p.428 

12.  Leaf-scars  always  2  at  a  node;  bundle-scars  not  in  an  ellipse; 
terminal  bud   present 13 

13.  Leaf  buds  with  only  a  single  pair  of  scales;  lateral  buds,  at  least 

the  upper  ones,  covered  by  persistent  bases  of  leaf-stalks   

FloweriuR   Dogwood   (Cornus   florida)   p.418 

13.  Leaf  buds  with  2  or  more  pairs  of  scales;  lateral  buds  not  covered 
by  persistent  bases  of  leaf-stalks   14 


196  TREES  IN  WINTER 

14.  Terminal  buds  large,  over  1.5  cm.  long,  sticky  or  varnished;  leaf- 
scar  larg-e,  inversely  triangular;  bundle-scars  3-9,  conspicuous 

Horse-chestnut   (Aescuius  HippocastanumJ  p.414 

14.  Terminal  buds  smaller,  under  1.5  cm.  long,  not  sticky-varnished; 
leaf-scars    smaller    15 

15.  Bundle-scars,  minute,  numerous  in  a  U-shaped  line  often  more  or 

less  confluent;  bud-scales  scurfy   (i.e.  rough-downy) 

Ash    (Fraxinus)    165 

15.  Bundle-scars  not  minute,  generally  definitely  3  in  number;  bud- 
scales    not    scurfy Maple    (Acer)     155 

16.  Stipule-scars  entirely  encircling  the  twig-   17 

16.  Stipule-scars  absent  or  if  present  not  encircling  the  twig 19 

17.  Leaf-scar  almost  completely  surrounding  the  bud;  terminal  bud 
absent;  (the  last  lateral  bud  may  appear  to  be  terminal  but  absence 

of  terminal  bud  is  shown  by  small  scar  at  end  of  twig) 

Sycamore    (PlatanusJ   p.348 

17.  Leaf-scar  not  surrounding  the  bud;  terminal  bud  present    18 

18.  Buds  ovate  to  conical,  hairy  at  least  within;   scar  of  rudimentary 

leaf  surmounting  decurrent  ridge  on  side  of  bud    

Magnolia    (Magnolia)    142 

18.  Buds  flattened  oblong,  smooth  without  and  within;  scar  of  rudi- 
mentary leaf,   if  present,   at  base  of  bud 

Tulip  Tree  (Lirioclendron  Tulipifera)  p.340 

19.  Twigs  with  thorns,  spines,  or  prickles,  or  branches  ending  in 
thorns     20 

19.  Twigs  without  thorns,  spines,  or  prickles    27 

20.  Spines  in  pairs  at  the  nodes,  or  twigs  covered  with  weak  hair- 
like prickles    21 

20.  Spines  not  in  pairs  at  the  nodes,  twigs  not  covered  with  weak 
prickles     22 

21.  Buds  rusty-hairy,  more  or  less  covered  by  bark;  terminal  bud 
absent Locust   (Rohinia)  p.38S 

21.  Buds,  red,  exposed;  terminal  bud  present;  a  shrub   

. .  .  .Prickly  Ash  (Zanthoxylon  americanum)  under  Comparisons  p.388 

22.  Thorns  lateral,  regularly  placed  on  the  twig  at  or  near  the 
nodes     23 

22.  Thorns  terminal    25 

23.  Thorns  generally  branched,  situated  above  the  nodes;  buds  several 

in  a  longitudinal  row,  the  lower  ones  covered  by  the  bark 

Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  triacanthus)  p.382 

23.  Thorns  generally  unbranched  on  twigs,  situated  at  the  nodes; 
sometimes  branched  thorns  on  trunk;  buds  exposed    24 

24.  Thorns  generally  present  at  all  the  nodes;  bundle-scar  single 

Osa@re  Orange  (Madura  pomifera)  under  Comparisons  p.360 

24.  Thorns  generally  absent  from  many  of  the  nodes;  bundle-scars  3. 
: Hawthorn   (Crataegus)  p.360 

25.  Terminal  bud  absent  but  leaving  a  terminal  scar  on  twig 

Plum    (Prunus)    151 

25.  Terminal  bud  present,  at  least  on  spineless  branches 26 

26.  Tree  with  bushy  habit  of  growth;  twigs  with  characteristic 
licorice-like  taste,  generally  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  pale- 
woolly  at  least  toward  apex;  lateral  buds  blunt,  flattish,  appressed 
and  more  or  less  pale-woolly    Apple   (Pyrus  Malus)  p.352 

26.  Tree  with  upright  habit  of  growth;  twigs  without  characteristic 
taste,  generally  yellowish  green  and  generally  smooth;  lateral  buds 
sharp-pointed,  smooth  or  sometimes  slightly  downy,  generally  not 
flattened  nor  appressed Pear  (Pyrus  communis)  p. 350 

27.  Pith  in  section  lengthwise  of  twig  seen  to  be  interrupted  by  hollow 
chambers  or  by  thin  woody  partitions  (the  partitions  are  fre- 
quently   inconspicuous) 28 

27.  Pith  continuous;  i.e.  without  hollow  chambers  or  woody  parti- 
tions         32 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  197 

28.     Pith  chambered  but  with  cha«ibers  confined  to  ^^e^^^des.^ . . .  ^. . ... 

28.     Pith"  when' chamiaVred  with 'chambers 'not  confined  to  the  noaes  -lii 

29      Pith  brown,  wide,  with  hollow  chambers ;  fruit  a  nut 30 

29!     Pith  light  colored,  narrow;  fruit  a  small  stone-fruit    31 

^0      Downy   patch   present   above   leaf-scar;    nut   elongated.    ■  •  •  :,\\ 

dU.     uowny    pdtc      f Butternut    (Jugians    ctnerea)   p.::64 

10      Downy  'patch  'absent  'from  leaf-scar ;  nut  rouna. :••••••  •  •  • 

rfu.     i^owny  PAH. Black  Waluut  (Juylans  nigra  J  i».266 

^1  Pith  with  hollow  chambers;  buds  brown,  terminal  bud  absent, 
lateral  buds  appressed Hackberry  (Celtis  occidentalisj  p.330 

31  Pith  with  woody  partitions  in  the  solid  ground-mass;  buds  reddish, 
'     terminal  bud  present,  lateral  buds  divergent .......... 

Tupelo    (Nyssa   sylvatxca)   p.420 

32  Leaf-scars  regularly  2-ranked,  i.e.  arranged  in  2  longitudinal  rows 

32.  Leaf-scars  regularly  more  tlian  2-ranked,  i.e.  in  more  than  2  rows 
on  the  twig '*^ 

33  Terminal  bud  absent  (the  last  lateral  bud  may  appear  to  be  ter- 
minal but  absence  of  terminal  bud  is  shown  by  small  scar  at 
end    of  twig)     {^ 

33  Terminal    bud    present     "^^ 

34  Stipule-scars  nearly  encircling  twig;  buds  long  and  narrow, 
generally  over  5  times  as  long  as  wide,  divergent;  bud-scales  in 
pairs,  4-ranked,  10  or  more  scales  visible Beech  (Fagus)  p.294 

34      Stipule-scars  when  present  relatively  short;  buds  stouter,  generally 
"     not  over  4  times  as  long  as  wide;  bud-scales  less  numerous 35 

35.     Buds   stalked    ^I^ 

35.  Buds    not    stalked    "* ' 

36  Buds,  for  the  most  part  naked,  i.e.  with  undeveloped  leaves  serving 
■     the  function  of  scales;  woody,   4-parted  fruits  and  the   remains  of 

last   season's    nowers   generally    present    ....... ...  ... 

Witch  Hazel  (Hamamehs  virginiana)  p.344 

36.  Buds 'covered 'with  bud-scales;  fruit  a  woody  ^^"j^;^^^^^/^^^^J^\"- p;2»2 

37  Leaf-scars  very  narrow.  V-shaped,  swollen  at  the  3  bundle-scars; 
buds  long,  appressed;  bud-scale  tipped  with  dark  point;  .stipule- 
scars  absent  Shad  Bush  (Amelanchxer  canadensis)  p.SoS 

37      Leaf-scars   relatively  broad;   buds   shorter;   bud-scale  without   con- 
*     spicuous    dark    point:    stipule-scars    present    though    often    mcon- 
spicuous    

38.  Bundle-scars  3;  bark  of  young  stem  and  branches  with  horizon- 
tally elongated  lenticels.  often  peeling  into  papery  layers;  pith 
generally  elliptical  often  with  irregularly  toothed  edges;  fruit  a 
catkin,  immature  catkins  generally  present  on  tree  in   winter. 

Birch    (Betula)    104 

3S  Buiidie-scar's  "several;  "lent i'c'e'ls  not  horizontally  elongated;  bark 
never  peeling  in  papery  layers;  pith  more  or  less  5-pointed  star- 
shaped;    fruit   a   bur Chestnut   (Castanea  dentata)  p.29« 

39  Leaf-scar  almost  entirely  surrounding  the  buds;  buds  brown,  hairy, 
several    massed    together    to    form    a    bud-like    cone;    bundle-scars 

raised,    generally    5    in    a    single    curved    li"^-    •••••••.••••;•••  U'^sft 

Yellow  AVood   (Cladrastts  liitea)  p.386 

39.  Le'af -scar' not 'm'o'r'e  than  half  surrounding  the  bud;  buds  not  massed 
together  into  a  hairy   cone 

40  Bundle-scars  3  or  more  in  a  single  curved  line.    .  .  .  .  ...  .  . 43 

40  Bundle-scars  more  than  3  in  a  closed  ellipse,  double  line,  vari- 
ously clustered  or  irregularly  scattered 41 

41.  2-3  scales  visible  to  a  bud;  bundle-scars  not  prominently  pro- 
iecting  

41  4  or  more  scales  visible  to  a  bud;  bundle-scars  rather  prominently 
■     projecting Mulberry   (MorusJ   141 


198  TREES  IN  WINTER 

42.  Twigs  usually  zigzag;  pith  roundish;  buds  and  twigs  mucilaginous 
when  chewed;  fruit  spherical,  woody,  about  size  of  |ea,  attached  to 
a  leaty   bract Ldndeii  (Tilia)  n  416 

42.  Twigs  nearly  straight;  pith  more  or  less '  5-pointed.  star-shaped- 
buds  and  twigs  not  mucilaginous  when  chewed;  fruit  a  large  bur! 
Chestnut   (Castanea  dentataj  p.29(i 


43. 


Buds    superposed,    at    least    at    some    of    the    nodes;    stipule-scars 

absent ;    older    pith    with    reddish    streaks 

.  „       •  •  •  • Redbiid  (Cercis   canadensis)   p.384 

43.  Buds  never  superposed;  stipule-scars  present;  pith  without  reddish 
streaks 44 

44.  2-3    scales    visible    to    a    bud 45 

44.  4  or  more  scales  visible  to  a  bud 46 

45.  Buds  stout;  buds  and  twigs  mucilaginous  when  chewed;  lenticels 
not  horizontally  elongated;  fruit  spherical,  woody,  about  size  of 
pea,  attached  to  leafy  bract Lrinden  (Tilia)  p.416 

45.  Buds  narrower,  buds  and  twigs  not  mucilaginous  when  chewed* 
lenticels  on  stems  and  branches  horizontally  elongated;  bark  often 
peeling  in  papery  layers;  fruit  a  winged  seed-like  body  borne  in 
catkins Birch   (Betula)   104 

46.  Bud-scales  2-ranked  (i.e.  arranged  on  the  bud  in  2  longitudinal 
rows);  leaf-scars  covered  with  a  smooth  corky  layer;  bundle-scars 
typically   sunken;   bark   ridged;   catkins   absent 

,^       •••• , Elm    (Ulmus)    138 

46.  Bud-scales  more  than  2-ranked;  leaf-scars  not  covered  with  smooth 
corky  layer;  bundle-scars  not  sunken;  fruit  borne  in  catkins.   ..    47 

47  Lenticels  horizontally  elongated  with  age;  bark  on  young  trunks 
and  branches  smooth,  not  becoming  fluted,  often  peeling  into 
papery    layers   but    not    flaky;    fruit   a    flat    seed-like    body   borne   in 

catkins;   catkins  generally   present  on  tree  in   winter 

Birch    (Betula)   104 

47.  Lenticels  not  horizontally  elongated;  bark  flaky  or  fluted;  bud- 
scales   4-ranked;   fruit   a  nutlet  attached  to  a   bract 48 

48.  Bark  flaky;  twigs  1-2  mm.  thick;  buds  usually  3-7  mm.  long; 
nutlet    enclosed    by   a   sac-like   bract;    staminate    catkins    generally 

abundantly  present   in   winter 

Hop    Horubeam    (Ostrya    virginiana)    p.276 

48.  Bark  smooth,  close,  sinewy-fluted;  twigs  about  1  mm.  or  less 
thick;  buds  usually  2-4  mm.  long;  nutlet  attached  to  flattish, 
toothed   bract;   staminate   catkins   enclosed   in   enlarged   scaly   buds, 

therefore    no    catkins    visible    on    tree    in    winter 

American  Hornbeam  (Carpimcs  caroliniana)  p.2/78 

49.  Buds  clustered  at  tips  of  vigorous  shoots;  terminal  bud  not  greatly 
larger   than    others    of   the    cluster    50 

49.  Buds  not  clustered  at  tips  of  vigorous  shoots,  or  if  slightly  clus- 
tered, then  terminal  bud  much  larger  than  others  of  the  cluster  53 

50.  Bundle-scars  numerous,  scattered;  pith  regularly  5-pointed,  star- 
shaped Oalc  (Quercus)   109   and   120 

50.  Bundle-scars    3;   pith   not    5-pointed,    star-shaped    51 

51.  Terminal  bud  absent,  but  leaving  a  terminal  scar  on  twig 

Plum   (Prunus)   150 

51.  Terminal    bud    present     52 

52.  Buds  woolly  at  least  at  tip;  collateral  buds  generally  present 

.• Peach    (Prunus   Persica)    p.27S 

52  Buds   smooth;    collateral   buds   generally   absent    145 

53.  Buds     stalked     54 

53  Buds  not  stalked    56 

54.  Buds  bright  yellow  dotted,   often   superposed 

Bitternut   (Carya  cordiformisj  p.274 

54.     Buds  not  bright  yellow  dotted,   not   superposed    55 

55  Buds  always  stalked,  blunt;  stipule-scars  present;  catkins  present 
in   winter    Alder   (Alnus)  p.292 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  199 

f^^  Buds  except  occasionally  on  rapidly  grown  twigs,  generally  not 
stalked  pointed;  corky  ridges  generally  present  on  branchlets; 
stipule-scars   and  /J^tkin^s^absent^  •  -  .-^.•^— 'j,- •  ■styra<kflu:aj'  piio 

^fi  Ruds  sunken  (i.e.  partially  or  completely  covered  by  the  bark) 
For  thlmos?  par{  minute  Ind  superposed;  best  seen  in  a  section 
leiigthwise  of  the  twig,  through  the  node  at  right  angles  to  the 
surface    of    the    leaf-scar    • ^' 

56.  Buds  not  sunken  and  in  most  cases  not  superposed    b9 

Twiffs    very    stout,    generally    1    cm.    or    more    thick;    pith    salmon- 
coTifld;  buds  bronze-silky,   exposed  but  surrounded  by  an  incurved 
downy  rim  of  the  bark;  bundle-scars  generally  more  than  3.   •••••• 

Qowiiy  Keiituckv  Coflfee  Tree   (Gymnocladus  dioxca)  p.3H0 

57.  Twigs  "rather  slender  generally  less  than  5  mm.  thick;  pith  whitish 
not    salmon-colored;    bundle-scars    3    ^* 

58.  Buds  smooth,  distant,  the  uppermost  breaking  through  the  bark 
above  the  leaf-scar,  the  lower  ones  submerged,  appearing  in  sec- 
tion of  twig  as  separate  green  dots.    .  .  ....  ...  .  •  •••;•••  •••■••  "  "AoA 

....    Hoiiev  Locust   (Gleditsia  triacanthus)  p.382 

58.  Buds  downy.'  clustered  together  in  cavity  below  If^^p^S^Lv/) '  «  ^ss 

Locust    (Rooinia)    p.3?5s 

59.  Bud-scale   one,    large   cap-like,   terminal   bud   ^^^?fj^^;^- ;.^-,j/^y  p.2.-,6 


57 


59. 
60. 


60. 


Bud-scaleV'more' than  "one  or  bud-scales  absent;  terminal  bud 
present    or    absent     

First  or  lowest  scale  of  lateral  bud  directly  in  front  (i.e.  facing 
directly  out  away  from  twig;  see  fig.  100);  leaf-scar  covered  with 
a  light-corky  layer,  large  inversely  triangular;  bundle-scars  3, 
often  compound;   pith  more  or  less  5-pointed  star-shaped.    •••••••• 

^ _ Poplar  (Poimlus)    96 

First  or  lowest  scale  of  "lateral  bud  not  directly  in  front    61 

61  Twigs  branching  freely  the  first  season,  therefore  branches  show- 
ing on  last  season's  growth,  the  branches  surpassing  the  main 
Rxis   in   lons'th      * 

61  Twigs  generally"  not  branching  the  first  season  or  if  occasionally 
branching   then    branches    not    surpassing   main    axis    in    length   b3 

62.  Bundle-scar  one;  twigs  greenish,  spicy,  mucilaginous  when  chewed. 
Sassafras  (Sassafras  variifoliwn)  p.34^ 

62.  Bundie-scars"   3,    twigs    not    mucilaginous .•  •  •    ^**5ye 

nate-leaved  Dogwood  (Cornus  alternifoUa)  under  Comparisons  p.4is 

63  Bundle-scars  1  or  2;  leaf-scars,  except  on  young  shoots,  mainly 
densely  clustered  on  short,  stout,  wart-like  branches   64 

63.  Bundle-scars  3  or  more   ^^ 

64.  Bundle-scar  single;  leaf-scars  minute,  scattered  leaf-scars  also 
present  on  twigs,  very  numerous  and  strongly  decurrent;  twigs 
slender;   fruit   a  cone,   generally   present l^arcXx  (L,arix)   yu 

64.  Bundle-scars  2;  leaf-scars  larger,  scattered  leaf-scars  if  present 
relatively  far  apart  and  not  decurrent;  twigs  stouter;  frmt  a  ftone- 
fruit  generally  absent Ginkgo  (Ginkgo  hiloha)  p.248 

65.  Bundle-scars  3  or  if  more  than  3  then  in  a  single  curved  line 
(bundle-scars    of   Bitternut   p.    275    occasionally    in    single    line)    by 

65,  Bundle-scars  more  than  3,  variously  grouped  or  scattered,  but  not 
in  a  single  line   i 

66.  Stipule-scars   absent;   terminal   bud   present 68 

66.  Stipule-scars  present;  terminal  bud  present  or  absent   o< 

67  2-3  bud-scales  visible;  bundle-scars  not  projecting;  terminal  bud 
present    or    generally    absent.       Chestnut    (Castanea    dentata)    p.-}>« 

67.  4  or  more  bud-scales  visible;  bundle-scars  projecting;  terrninai 
bud  absent   Mulberry  (Moi-iis)  141 

68.  Buds  large;  twigs  without  resinous  juice;  fruit  a  nut;  a  tree.   ••••. 

Hickory   (Carya)    101 

68.  Buds  small;  twigs  with  resinous  juice;  fruit  a  small  white  drupe; 
a   shrub   growing   in   swamps.    Poison   Sumacli    (Rhus   Vernix)   p.394 


200  TREES  IN  WINTER 

69,     Bundle-scars    3 74 

69.  Bundle-scars   4   or  more 70 

70     Terminal  bud  absent,  but  leaving-  a  terminal  scar  on  twig 72 

70.  Terminal    bud    present     7I 

71.  Lateral  buds  mostly  large,  twig  without  resinous  juice;  fruit  red 
berry-like;  a  small  tree Mouutuin  Ash  (Pyrus)  p.354 

71.  Lateral  buds  small,  cut  twig  exuding  watery,   resinous  juice;  fruit 

small,  whitish  drupes;  a  shrub  growing  in  swamps 

Poison  Sumach  (Rhus  Vernixj  p.394 

72.  Leaf-scars  deeply  V-shaped,  almost  entirely  surrounding  the 
buds     73 

72.  Leaf-scars,  inversely  triangular  to  heart-shaped,  large,  not  more 
than  half  surrounding  the  bud;  twigs  stout;  pith  chocolate-brown. 
Ailanthus  (Ailanthiis  glandulosa)  p.SOO 

73.  Pith    yellowish-brown;    twigs    stout,    exuding   a    milky   juice   when 

rro       ^II  ••{■■:■' \: . •,•••, Sumach   (Rhus)   153 

73.  Pith  whitish;  twigs  slender,  without  milky  juice 

Yellow  Wood   (Cladrastis  luteaj  p.386 

74.  Terminal  buds  on  rapidly  grown  shoots  absent,  but  leaving  a  ter- 
minal   scar    g3 

74.  Terminal   buds    present 75 

75.  Lateral  buds  flattened,  appressed,  about  as  broad  as  long 76 

75.  Lateral  buds  not  distinctly  flattened  and  appressed,  in  most  cases 
longer  than  broad    78 

76.  Terminal  bud  large,  generally  12  mm.  or  more  long;  some  of  the 
lateral  buds  generally  long,  nearly  equalling  terminal  bud;  leaf- 
scars  raised  on  dark  red,   polished  ridges  of  the  bark 

Mountain  Ash   (Pyrus)  p.354 

76.  Terminal  bud  smaller,  generally  under  8  mm.  long;  all  lateral 
buds  small;  leaf-scars  not  on  specially  colored  ridges  of  the  bark  77 

77.  Tree  with  bushy  habit  of  growth;  twigs  with  characteristic  licorice- 
like  taste,  generally  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  pale-woolly  at 
least  toward  apex;  lateral  buds  blunt,  more  or  less  pale-woolly. 
Apple  (Pyrus  Malus)  p.352 

77.  Tree  with  upright  habit  of  growth;  twigs  without  characteristic 
taste,  generally  yellowish-green  and  generally  smooth;  lateral  buds 

sharp-pointed,  smooth  or  sometimes  slightly  downy 

Pear   (Pyrus  communis)  p.350 

78.  Buds  spherical  or  nearly  so,  seldom  pointed;  bud-scales  thick, 
shining;    leaf-scars   narrow;    twigs   more    or   less    zigzag,    branches 

generally  thorny;  fruit  a  small  pome;  small  trees  or  shrubs 

Hawthorn    (Crataegus)    p.360 

78.  Buds  not   spherical;   bud-scales   thinner    79 

79.  Leaf-scars  narrow  crescent-shaped,  generally  several  times  as 
broad   as   high    80 

79.  Leaf-scars  semicircular  to  broadly  crescent-shaped,  seldom  as  much 
as  3  times  as  broad  as  high   81 

80.  Buds  long,  narrow,  elliptical,   3-4  times  as  long  as  wide 

Shad  Bush  (Amelanchier  canadensis)  p.358 

80.  Buds  conical,  stout Pear  (Pyrus  communis)  p.350 

81.  Twigs  densely  speckled  with  very  minute  pale  dots,  brightly 
colored,  generally  green-yellow  below  and  more  or  less  reddish 
above  and  highly  polished;  buds  generally  densely  downy  at  least 

toward  apex;  collateral  buds  usually  present 

Peach  (Prunus  Persica)  p.378 

81.  Twigs  not  densely  speckled  with  minute  dots;  buds  not  densely 
downy,  collateral  buds  generally  not  present   82 

82.  Twigs  without  bitter  taste;  branchlets  generally  becoming  corky- 
ridged;  bud-scales  downy-margined;  leaf-scars  large  with  con- 
spicuous bundle-scars;  fruit  a  spherical  bur-like  head  generally 
present  in  winter Sweet  Gum  (Liquidamhar  Styraciflua)  p.346 

82.  Twigs  with  bitter  taste  often  resembling  bitter  almonds;  branches 
without  corky  ridges;  bud-scales  not  downy-margined;  fruit  a 
drupe Cherry  or  Plum  (Prunus)  145 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  201 

83  Buds  ^herical  or  nearly  so;  bud-scales  thick,  shining;  twigs  more 
''■  or  less^zigzag.  often  thorny ;  fruit  a  small ^pome.^  ' (d^-aiaeousj  p.360 
83.     Buds  'Aot  'spherical,  longer  than  broad    84 

84  Twies  o-enerally  gray-woolly  toward  apex;  buds  blunt,  brown-hairy 
''■     It"\!?;°i;\^;u,e-^s?ars^at    the    ^i^es    o^Jeaf-scar.^^  .^.  .^.^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

84      Twins' smooth"  or' downy  but    not   woolly;   buds   pointed,    generally 
''■     ^r^offhTr^'somewhat    downy;    stipule-scars    -ore    or    le^^s^^behmd 
leaf-scar 

THE  PINES 
Pinus. 


rudimentary    branch    which    is    subtended    '^y  ,^,^^^l^i'^,?   the   second   or 

the  light  with  a  hand-lens.     Twig  photographs  are  about  y^  natural  size. 

85.'  5  needles  in  a  cluster White  Pine  (Finns  Strobus)  p.210 

85.  Less  than  5  needles  in  a  cluster 

86.  3  needles  in  a  cluster Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida)  p.212 

86.  2   needles  in  a  cluster    

87  Needles  3-6  in    long,  cones  at  right  angles  to  branch    ■■•••••••  ■.JJ' 

8?:     Neldlls    1/2-3%    in     long,    cones    pointing    either   backward    or    for- 

ward    

88  CiS'yeliowis^h-b^ownV  leaves     thicker     and     stiff,      resin-ducts 
between   periphery  and  bundle;   European   species.    .••••;•  •  ■  •  •  •  -  • 

...r...   Austrian  Pine  (Pinus  Laricio,  var.  austriaca)  p.218 

89.     Cones    pointing    forward,    leaves    %-!%    in.    long     dark    Y^^^^^ 
green,    resin-ducts   between   Pe^Ph^ery^^and.bjmd^ 

c'o'nes'poinU'ng"ba'ckward,"leaves    IV^.-SM:    in.    long,    bluish-green. 
y!!l^".^^?!'  .^^''.^."I^'^l^.  .''"!'^^.'^  Seo^teh  pine  (Pinm  syivesMs)  p'.226 

THE  LARCHES 
Larix. 


89. 


Pvramidal    deciduous-leaved,  cone-bearing   trees;    twigs   with   resi^^^^^^ 

with   densely   clustered   leaf-scars   abundant. 

Cones  %-%  inch  long  with  few  scales;  twigs  pale  reddish-brown; 
a  native  tree  growing  in  swamps^^^.^^.  • -„VeW  '  rL«W:r '  iaw'c'inarp',222 
Co'n'e's"i'inch"o'r 'm'ore'l'ong    with    many    scales;    twigs    yellowish. 


90. 
90. 


T.''^'^''  ^u^o^^ul^lJrlV  under   Comparisons   p...: 

THE  SPRUCES 
Picea. 


vverereen  nvramidal  trees  with  scaly  bark,  alternate  scattered  4- 
anl  ed^[elves^\virhout  proper  leaf-stalks  but  perched  on  Persistent 
de?urrent  proiections  from  the  bark  and  ovate  to  cylindrical  pendant 
?ones  which  ?inoff"fhe  tree  entire.  The  Spruces  are  distinguished  from 
the  Balsam  Fir  by  the  4-sided  scattered  leaves,  the  projecting  leaf  scars 
and  the  scaly  bark.     Twig  photographs  are  about   V&  natural  size. 


202  TREES  IN  WINTER 


91.     Twigs   hairy    92 

91.  Twig-s  smooth  or  nearly  so,  cones  cylindrical 94 

92.  Cones  cylindrical,  more  than  3  inches  long;  cultivated  species  .... 
]Vorv*'ay  Spruce  (Picea  AhiesJ  ii.232 

92.  Cones  ovate  to  oblong,  less  than  3  inches  long    93 

93.  Leaves  dark  yellowish  green,  i^-%  inch  long.  Cones  ovate-oblong 
114-2  inches  long;  a  tree  growing  on  uplands,  rarely  in  wet  places, 
reaching  40  ft.  or  more  in  height.    .  .   Red  Spruce  (Picea  rubra)  p.226 

93.  Leaves  bluish  green,  Vi-V2  inch  long,  cones  ovate,  %-li/^  inches 
long,  persistent  on  tree  for  more  than  a  year;  a  tree  growing 
chiefly    in    swamps    or   lowlands,    generally    under    30    ft.    in    height, 

sometimes  fruiting  when  less  than  5  ft.  high 

Black  Spruce  (Picea  mariana)  p.22S 

94.  Leaves   green,    cones    4-7    inches    long,    cultivated    species 

NorvFay  Spruce  (Picea  Abies)  p.232 

94.  Leaves   bluish   green   or   silvery 95 

95.  Cones  2i/^-4  inches  long,  cone  scales  distinctly  longer  than  broad 
with  narrowed,  ragged,  blunt  apex;  cultivated  western,  species. 
Blue  Spruce  (Picea  Menziesii)  p.230 

95.  Cones  l%-2  inches  long,  cone  scales  rounded,  not  ragged;  leaves 
generally  with  unpleasant  odor,  native  in  northern  New  England 
but  cultivated  further  south.     White  Spruce  (Picea  canadensis)  p.224 


THE  POPLARS 

Populus. 


Rapidly  growing  trees  generally  with  erect  more  or  less  continuous 
trunk  forming  distinct  whorls  of  branches  at  top  of  each  year's  growth 
by  which  the  age  of  the  tree  may  be  estimated;  branchlets  brittle 
easily  separating  at  point  of  attachment;  young  bark  smooth,  generally 
light  colored;  pith,  5-pointed  star-shaped,  upon  drying  generally  turning 
brown  or  black;  leaf-scars  large,  3-lobed,  inverted  triangular,  covered 
with  a  light  colored  corky  layer;  stipule-scars  generally  distinct,  narrow; 
bundle-scars  3,  simple  or  compound  in  3  groups;  buds  with  the  first 
scale  anterior  (facing  outward),  the  first  pair  of  scales  small  and 
opposite;  scale-scars  marking  annual  growth  persisting  for  several 
years;  seeds  downy,  produced  from  catkins  in  spring,  the  tree  often 
spreading  widely  by  formation  of  root  suckers.  The  Poplars  are 
dioecious.  They  resemble  the  Willows  but  are  easily  distinguished 
by  the  num-erous  scales  to  the  bud.  In  addition  to  the  native  species 
here  described  a  rare  form,  the  Downy  Poplar  [Populus  heterophylla  L.], 
occurs  locally  in   swamps  in  southern  New  England. 

96.     Twigs  covered  at  least  at  apex  with  white  cottony  felt  which  may 

be   readily  rubbed  off  exposing  the   greenish   bark  below 

Silver  Poplar  (Populus  alba)  p.252 

96.  Twigs  smooth,  not  at  all  covered  with  white  felt    97 

97.  Twigs  yellowish    98 

97.  Twigs  not   yellowish    (generally   reddish-brown)    99 

98.  Lateral  buds  for  the  most  part  divergent,  large,  about  10  mm.  or 
more  in  length,  tree  with  more  or  less  pyramidal  head,  but  not 
narrowly  spire-shaped Carolina  Poplar  (Populus  deltoicles)  p.260 

98.  Lateral  buds  for  the  most  part  appressed,  smaller,  generally  under 

8   mm.    long,    tree    narrowly    spire-shaped 

Liombardy  Poplar  (Populus  nigra^  var.  italica)  p.262 

99.  Buds  more   or  less  pale  dusty-downy 

L.arge-toothe4  Aspen  (Populus  grandidentata)  p.256 

99.      Buds   not   downy    100 

100.     Buds  large,  over  15  mm.   long,   covered  with  fragrant  sticky  gum. 

Balsam   Poplar    (Populus    balsamifera)   p.25S 

100.     Buds    small,    under    10    mm.    long,    shiny,    slightly    sticky    but    not 

fragrant Small-toothed  Aspen  (Populus  tremuloides)  p.254 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  203 

THE  HICKORIES 
Carya. 


Trees  with  smooth  gray  tough  bark  in  young  trees,  becoming  rough- 
ened with  age;  twigs  in  the  main  stout,  tough,  flexible,  but  with 
difficulty  broken,  dark,  sharply  outlined  against  the  sky;  buds  more 
or  less'  naked  to  evidently  scaly,  frequently  superposed,  the  lateral 
sometimes  enclosed  in  a  sac  soon  splitting  at  the  top  and  often 
stalked:  leaf-scars  alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous, 
more  or  less  3-lobed  inversely  triangular;  bundle-scars  conspicuous, 
more  than  3,  irregularly  scattered  or  collected  in  3  more  or  less  regular 
groups,  rarely  in  a  straight  line;  pith  not  chambered  except  at  nodes, 
sometimes  somewhat  star-shaped  in  cross  section;  lenticels  oblong, 
conspicuous;  fruit  an  unsculptured  nut,  inclosed  in  a  husk  which 
splits   into   four   valves   at    least   at   the   apex. 

101.  Buds  conspicuously  bright  yellow  with  minute  glandular  dots; 
terminal  buds  elongated,  flattened;  bud-scales  4-6,  valvate  in 
pairs Bitternut    (Carya    cordiformis)    p.274 

101.  Buds  not  conspicuously  bright  yellow-dotted;  terminal  buds  ovate; 
bud-scales,  10  or  more,  overlapping,  or  the  outermost  on  lateral 
buds  usually  forming  a  closed  sac  soon  splitting  from  the  top; 
inner  scales  hairy 102 

102.  Buds  small,  terminal  buds  5-10  mm.  long,  their  outer  darker  scales 
generally  somewhat  glandular  dotted,  but  not  conspicuously 
vellow;  outer  scales  often  falling  and  exposing  downy  scales 
beneath;  twigs  smooth,  comparatively  slender;  bark  not  at  all  or 
but  slightly  shaggy Piguut  (Carya  glabra)  p.272 

102.  Buds  large,  the  terminal  buds  8-15  mm.  long,  ovate,  nearly  or 
quite  glandless;  twigs  stout,  often  downy  toward  tip 103 

103.  Bark  not  shaggy;  terminal  buds  broadly  ovate  to  spherical,  outer 
scales  soon  falling  off  entire,  exposing  pale  yellowish-gray  silky 
scales    beneath Mookermit    (Carya    alba)    p.270 

103.  Bark  distinctly  shaggy;  terminal  buds  elongated  ovate,  dark 
outer  scales  persisting  through  winter  but  shagging  off  in  pieces 
from  their  apeii  downward.     Shag-bark  Hickory  (Carya  ovata)  p.268 

THE  BIRCHES 
Betula. 


Bark  smooth,  in  some  species  peeling  into  papery  layers  but  not  flaky; 
lenticels  becoming  conspicuously  horizontally  elongated  with  age;  leaf- 
scars  alternate,  2-ranked,  semi-oval  to  crescent-shaped;  stipule-scars 
narrow,  often  inconspicuous:  bundle-scars  3  rather  inconspicuous:  fruit 
a  flat  seed-like  body  borne  in  catkins,  staminate  catkins  generally 
present  on  the  tree   in   winter. 

104.     Bark  close,  not  easily  separated  into  thin  papery  layers   105 

104.  Bark  easily  separated  into  thin  papery  layers  and  generally  peel- 
ing   spontaneously     106 

105.  Bark   dark    reddish    brown;    twigs   with    strong   wintergreen    taste. 
Hlat'k   Hireh  (Betula  lenta)  p.2S0 

105.  Bark    chalky-white;    twigs    without     wintergreen    taste,    generally 
roughened  with  resinous  dots.     Gray  Illroh  (Betula  populifolia)  p.2SG 

106.  Outer  layers  of  bark  chalky-white   107 

106.  Outer   layers    of   bark    not    chalky-white    108 

107.  Native  species Paper  nireh  (Betula  alba  var.  papyrifera)  p.2SS 

107.  European    species Kuropt-an   AVhite    Birch    (Betula   alba)   p.2»0 

108.  Bark   reddish-brown  to   light    pink;   rare  and   local   in  New  Hamp- 
shire  and   Massachusetts,   occasionally   cultivated 

Red  Birch  (Betula  nigra)  p.2.S4 

108.     Bark  dirty-yellow;  common  throughout  New  England 

Yellow   Birch   (Betula   lutea)  p.282 


204  TREES  IN  WINTER 

THE  OAKS 

Quercus. 


The  Oaks  form  a  large  genus,  of  which  52  are  North  American.  Of 
these,  12  are  native  to  New  England.  Buds  clustered  at  ends  of  twigs, 
more  or  less  5-sided  pyramidal,  covered  with  5  rows  of  closely  over- 
lapping brownish  scales.  Leaf-scars  concave  to  rounded  above,  round- 
ed at  base,  generally  broader  than  high  and  raised  with  a  ridge  more 
or  less  well  marked,  decurrent  from  lower  edge,  the  ridges  from  the 
5  ranks  of  leaf-scars  causing  twig  to  be  more  or  less  5-angled 
especially  when  dried.  Bundle-scars  irregularly  scattered,  inconspicuous. 
Stipule-scars  inconspicuous.  Pith  of  cut  twig  5-poihted,  star-shaped. 
Cross-section  of  branch  or  trunk  showing  layers  of  large,  porous  spring 
wood  alternating  with  dense  layers  of  summer  wood.  Medullary  rays 
of  wood  very  prominent,  showing  as  radial  lines  in  cross  section  of  a 
log,  also  generally  showing  prominently,  especially  through  a  hand- 
lens,  on  cut  end  of  stout  branchlet  of  several  years  growth.  Fruit  an 
acorn  inclosed  in  a  scaly  cup.  Dead  leaves  often  persistent  on  the 
tree  during  winter. 

Key  to  Oaks  based  upon  fruiting  material. 


109.  Fruit  maturing  in  autumn  of  second  year,  ripe  acorns  therefore 
borne  upon  parts  of  twig  two  years  old;  immature  acorns  to  be 
found  in  winter  on  twigs  of  the  past  season's  growth;  shell  of 
nut   hairy    inside;    abortive    ovules    at    the    top    of    the    nut;    scales 

of  acorn-cup  broad  and  thin;  lobes  of  leaves  bristle-pointed 

Black    Oaks    110 

109.  Fruit  maturing  in  one  year,  ripe  acorns  therefore  borne  upon  past 
season's  growth;  no  immature  acorns  to  be  found  upon  twigs  in 
winter;  shell  of  nut  smooth  inside;  abortive  ovules  at  base  of  nut; 
lower  scales  at  least  of  acorn  cup  more  or  less  thickened  at  base 
giving  a  knobby  appearance  to  surface  of  cup;  scales  more  or  less 
densely    woolly;    kernel    commonly    sweetish;    lobes    of    leaves    not 

bristle-pointed;  bark  flaky  except  in  Chestnut  Oak 

W^hite   Oaks    114 

110.  Cup  of  acorn  shallow  saucer-shaped Ill 

110.  Cup    top-shaped    112 

111.  Cup  thin,   15  mm.  or  less  wide;  buds  4  mm.  or  less  long 

Pin   Oak   (Quercus   palustris)   p.314 

111.  Cup  thick,  20  mm.  or  more  wide;  buds  over  4  mm.  long 

Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra)  p.312 

112.  Buds  under  4  mm.  long;  twigs  slender;  shrubs 

Bear  Oak  (Quercus  ilicifoliaj  p.320 

112.  Buds  over  4.5  mm.  long;  twigs  rather  stout;  trees    113 

113.  Upper    scales    of    cup    loosely    overlapping;    buds    pointed,    whole 

surface  woolly;  inner  bark  yellow 

Black    Oak    (Quercus    velutina)    p.318 

113.  Upper  scales  of  cup  closely  overlapping;  buds  blunt,  downy  above 
middle;    inner   bark   pale   red.    Scarlet    Oak   (Qtiercus   coccinea)   p.316 

114.  Upper  scales  of  cup  with  thread-like  outgrowths  forming  a 
fringe  to  cup;  branchlets  often  with  corky  ridges;  lateral  buds 
frequently  appressed Bur  Oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa)  p.302 

114.  Cup  without  distinct  fringe;  branchlets  without  corky  ridges; 
lateral    buds    divergent    " 115 

115.  Bark  on  branchlets  peeling  back  in  dark  stiff-papery  layers; 
marginal  scales  of  cup  narrow  awn-pointed;  acorns  long-stalked. 
Sfvamp  White  Oak  (Quercus  bicolor)  p.304 

115.  Bark  on  branchlets  not  peeling  back  in  dark  stiff-papery  layers; 
acorns  sessile  or  short-stalked  (at  times  long-stalked  in  White 
Oak)     116 

116.  Buds    sharp-pointed     117 

116.     Buds    blunt     118 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  205 

117.  Nut  20-35  mm.  long-;  buds  4-10  mm.  long;  bark  thick,  furrowed, 
not   flaky CheMtuut   Oak  (Quercus  PrinusJ  p.SlO 

117.  Nut  15-20  mm.  long;  buds  3-6  mm.   long-;   bark  thin,  flaky 

Chinquapiu  Oak  (Quercus  MuJilenbergiiJ  p.300 

118.  Twigs  slender,  generally  not  over  2  mm.  thick;  shrubs 

Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  (Quercus  prinoides)  p.308 

118.  Twigs  relatively  stout,  generally  over  2  mm.  thick;  trees 119 

119.  Twigs,  at  least  in  part,  covered  with  very  fine  close  olive-green 
down;  buds,  generally  nearly  hemispherical,  about  as  broad  as 
long;  scales  of  cup  only  slightly  knobby,  apex  of  nut  generally 
downy Post  Oak  (Quercus  stellata)  p.SOO 

119.  Twigs  smooth;  buds  distinctly  longer  than  broad,  broadly  ovate; 
scales  of  cup  thick-knobby  at  base,  apex  of  nut  generally  smooth. 
AViiite   Oak   (Quercus   albaj   p.298 

Key  to  Oaks  without  fruit. 


NOTE.    (W)   after    name    indicates    that    the    tree    belongs    to    the    White 
Oak  Group. 
(B)   after   name    indicates    that    the    tree    belongs    to    the    Black 
Oak    Group. 
Immature    acorns    therefore    may    often    be   found    on    winter    twigs    of 
species  marked  with    (B)    but   not   on  those  marked  with    (W). 

120.     Buds  large,  those  at  tip  of  twig  4.5  mm.  or  more  long 121 

120.  Buds  smaller,   less  than  4.5  mm.  long   128 

121.  Bark  of  trunk  flaky    122 

121.  Bark  of  trunk  not  flaky    125 

122.  Lateral  buds  generally  appressed,  buds  downy;  older  twigs  often 
with  corky  ridges Bur  Oak   (W)   (Querciis  macrocarpa)  p.302 

122.  Lateral  buds  divergent,  buds  smooth;  twigs  without  corky  ridges 
123 

123.  Buds   narrow   conical,    pointed 

Chinquapin  Oak  (W)  (Qxiercus  MuhlenbergiiJ  p.30(> 

123.  Buds    shorter,    blunt    124 

124.  Twigs  at  least  in  part  covered  with  very  fine  close  orange-brown 
down Post  Oak  (W)  (Quercus  stellata)  p.300 

124.  Twigs  smooth White  Oak   (W)    (Quercus  alba)  p.29S 

125.  Surface  of  buds  pale-woolly 126 

125.  Surface    of    buds    not    woolly 128 

126.  Inner  bark  of  trunk  orange-yellow;  twigs  bitter,  coloring  saliva 
yellow  when  chewed;  whole  surface  of  bud  woolly;  buds  large, 
ovate-conical Black  Oak    (B)    (Quercus  velutina)  p.31S 

126.  Inner  bark  of  trunk  not  yellow;  twigs  neither  bitter  nor  coloring 
saliva  when  chewed;  not  more  than  upper  half  of  bud  woolly  127 

127.  Buds  sharp-pointed;  ovate,  the  widest  part  about  i/4-%  above  base; 

slightly  or  not  at  all  woolly  toward  apex 

Red   Oak    (B)    (Quercus  rubra)  p.312 

127.  Buds  blunt-pointed;  oval-ovate,  the  widest  part  at  or  slightly  below 

middle;    distinctly    woolly    above    middle 

Scarlet  Oak   (B)   (Quercus  coccinea)  p.316 

128.  Fissures   of  bark   separated  by  long  fiat  ridges;   buds   ovate,   more 

or  less  constricted   at   base;  twigs   not   bitter 

Red  Oak   (B)    (Quercus  rubra)  p.312 

128.  Fissures  of  bark  separated  by  long  rounded  ridges;  buds  narrower, 
conical,  seldom  constricted  at  base;  twigs  more  or  less  bitter  when 
chewed Chestnut  Oak  (W)   (Quercus  Prinus)  p.310 

129.  Buds    narrow,    conical    1-^0 

129.  Buds  short,  blunt    133 

130.  Bark    of    trunk    flaky     131 

130.     Bark   of  trunk   not   flaky    132 


206  TREES  IN  WIKTER 

131,  Buds  downy,  lateral  buds  generally  appressed;  older  twigs  often 
with  corky  ridges Bur  Oak   (W>   (Quercus  macrocarpaj  p.30:i 

131.  Buds  smooth,  lateral  buds  divergent,  twigs  without  corky  ridges 
Chinquapin  Oak  (W)  (Quercus  MuhlenbergiiJ  p.SOG 

132.  Twigs   of  past    season   dull,   finely   downy;   shrubs 

•  •  • : Bear   Oak    (B)    (Quercus  ilicifolia)  p.326 

132.  Twigs    smooth,    shining;    slender   pin-like   twigs    numerous,    arising 

at  nearly  a  right  angle  with  the  branchlets;   trees 

Pin  Oak    (B)    (Quercus  palustrisj  p'.sii 

133,  Bark  on  branchlets  peeling  into  long,  dark,  stiff-papery  lavers. 
Swamp  AVIiite  Oak   (W)   (Quercus  bicolorj  p.304 

133,  Bark  on  branchlets  not  peeling  into  long,  dark,  stiff-papery  lay- 
ers        134 

134,  Twigs  slender,  generally  not  over  2  mm,  thick;  shrubs 135 

134,  Twigs  stout,  generally  over  2  mm.  thick;  trees    136 

135,  Bark   of  trunk   smooth;   young   acorns    generally    found    on   winter 

twigs;    buds   more   generally   conical 

Bear    Oak    (B)    (Quercus   ilicifolia)    p.326 

135.  Bark  of  trunk  flaky;  young  acorns  never  found  on  winter  twig-s. 
Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  (W)  (Quercus  prinoidesJp.SOS 

136,  Lateral  buds  generally  appressed;  buds  densely  downy;  older  twigs 
often    with    corky   rides.    Bur   Oak    (W)    (Quercus   macrocarpa)   p.302 

136,  Lateral  buds  divergent;  buds  not  densely  downy;  twigs  without 
corky    ridges     137 

137.  Twigs  at  least  in  part  covered  with  very  fine  close  orange-brown 
down;  buds  generally  nearly  hemispherical  and  about  as  broad  as 
long Post    Oak    (W)    (Quercus    stellata)    p.300 

137.  Twigs  smooth;  buds  broadly  ovate,  distinctlv  longer  than  broad. 
AVhite  Oak   (W)  (Quercus  alba)  p.298 

THE  ELMS 
Ulmus. 


Leaf-scars  alternate,  2-ranked,  semi-circular,  small,  but  conspicuous, 
covered  with  a  light  corky  layer;  bnndle-scars  prominent,  3  to  several, 
sunken;  terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  medium  sized  with  2  ranks 
of  over-lapping  bud-scales;  twigs  slender;  bark  ridged;  fruit  small,  flat, 
winged,   ripening  in  spring. 

138.     Twigs  gray  and  rough   and   strongly  mucilaginous  if  chewed;   tips 

of  buds   conspicuous   with   long   rusty   hairs 

Slippery  Elm  (Ulmus  fulva)  p.322 

138.  Twigs  neither  gray  and  rough  nor  strongly  mucilaginous;  buds 
without   long  rusty   hairs    139 

139.  Buds  chestnut  brown;  bud-scales  with  darker  margins;  bark 
ridged;    native    species    140 

139,  Buds  smoky  brown  to  almost  black;  bud-scales  nearly  uniform  in 
color,  bark  firmer,  roughened  into  dark  oblong  blocks;  trunk 
mostly  continuous   into  crown  with   stout   limbs  arising  at  a  broad 

angle;   head.    "Oak-like;"   European   species 

English  Elm  (Ulmus  campestris)  p.324 

140.  Twigs  often  with  corky  ridges;  trunk  generally  continuous  into 
crown  with  stiff  dependent  lower  branches;  head  narrow,  "Hickory- 
like."       Cork  Elm  (Ulmus  racemosa)  p.328 

140.  Twigs  without  corRy  ridges:  trunk  dividing  into  several  limbs, 
spreading  gradually  upward  and  gracefully  recurving;  head  broad. 
"Elm-like."    AVhite   Elm   (Ulmus   americana)   p.326 

THE  MULBERRIES 
Morus. 


Leaf-scars  alternate,  2-ranked,  nearly  circular;  stipule-scars  narrow; 
bundle-scars  projecting  in  a  closed  ring  or  irregularly  scattered;  ter- 
minal bud   absent;   bud-scales  2-ranked;  twigs   with  milky  juice. 


IDENTIFICATION-  OF  TREES.  207 


141.  Buds  about  as  broad  as  long-,  more  or  less  flattened  and  appressed, 
generally  under  4  mm.  long;  bud-scales  reddish  brown  without 
darker  margins AVhIte  Mulberry  (Morns  alba)  p.334 

141.  Buds  longer  than  broad,  not  at  all  or  but  slightly  flattened,  diver- 
gent, generally  over  5  mm.  long;  bud-scales  greenish  brown  with 
darker  margins Red  3Iulberry   (Morus  rubra)  p.332 


THE  MAGNOLIAS 
Magnolia. 


Terminal  bud  much  larger  than  lateral  buds;  bud-scales  valvate, 
united  in  pairs  to  form  a  cap,  corresponding  to  stipules,  each  pair 
enclosing  in  succession  an  erect  folded  leaf  connected  with  the  next 
inner  pair  of  scales;  the  unmatured  leaf  which  belongs  to  the  outer  pair 
of  stipular  scales  falling  off  in  autumn  and  leaving  a  scar  on  side 
of  bud  with  a  decurrent  ridge  below,  representing  its  leaf  stalk; 
stipule-scar  narrow,  encircling  the  twig;  leaf-scars  alternate,  more 
than  2-ranked,  broad,  oval  to  narrow  crescent-shaped,  bundle-scais 
numerous,  irregularly  scattered  or  in  a  double  row;  twigs  aromatic; 
fruit  a  cone  made  up  of  numerous  follicles  which  split  open  in  the 
autumn  and  let  out  the  large  flattish   seeds. 

142.     Buds  large  25-50  mm.  long;  twigs  stout;  leaf-scars  large    ....    148 

142.  Buds  small  10-20  mm.  long;  twigs  slender;  leaf-scars  small   .  .  .    144 

143.  Buds  densely  pale-downy;  twigs  light  yellowish  to  bluish-green, 
more  or  less  downy,  fruit  nearly  spherical.     Larg-e-leaved  Mag:nolia. 

Large-leaved   Cucumber  Tree,   Large-leaved   Umbrella   Tree .' 

(Magnolia  macrophylla  Michx. )   under  Comparisons  i).336 

143.  Buds  smooth;   twigs  brown;   fruit   elongated 

Umbrella  Tree  (Magnolia  tripetala)  p.338 

144.  Twigs  brown;  leaf-scars  narrow,  crescent  to  U-shaped;  buds  blunt, 
densely  downy;  bark  flaky;  a  tree;  in  New  England  found  only 
in  cultivation Cucumber  Tree  (Magnolia  acuminata)  p.336 

144.  Twigs  and  buds  bright  green;  leaf-scars  oval  to  broadly  crescent- 
shaped;  buds  pointed,  with  long,  silky  hairs,  often  nearly  smooth; 
pith  with  more  or  less  distinct  transverse  woody  partitions  in  the 
ground  mass;  bark  smooth;  in  New  England  usually  a  shrub, 
growing  wild  in  deep  swamps  in  Eastern  Massachusetts,  also 
extensively  cultivated.      Sweet   Bay,   Swamp   Bay,   Laurel  Magnolia, 

Beaver  Tree.     (Magnolia  virginiana  L. ;  M,  glauca  L. )    

under  Comparisons  p.336 

THE  CHERRIES,  PLUMS  AND  PEACH 
Prunus. 


Leaf-scars  alternate,  more  than  2-ranked;  bundle-scars  3;  stipule-scars 
present,  inconspicuous,  or  absent;  buds  with  scales  overlapping  in  sev- 
eral  rows;  terminal   bud  present  or  absent;   fruit   a  drupe. 

145.     Terminal    bud    present    146 

145.  Terminal  bud  absent.    (Plums)    151 

146.  Twigs  densely  speckled  with  very  minute  pale  dots,  brightly 
colored,  generally  green-yellow  below  and  more  or  less  reddish 
above  and  highly  polished;  buds  geneially  densely  downy  at  least 

toward   apex;   collateral   buds   usually   present. 

Peach  (Prtmus  Persica)  p.378 

146.  Twigs  not  densely  speckled  with  very  minute  dots;  buds  not 
densely  downy;  collateral  buds  absent  (occasionallv  present  in 
Wild  Red  Cherry)    147 

147.  Buds  clustered  at  tips  of  all  shoots;  twigs  under  2  mm.  thick. 
AVIlil  Red  Cherry  (Prunus  pennsylvanica)  p.366 

147.  Buds  not  clustered,  or  clustered  only  on  short  fruit  spurs;  twigs 
generally   over  2.5   mm.  thick    148 

148.  Short  stout  slow-growing  fruit  spurs  present  with  buds  clustered 
at    their   tips;    European    species    149 

148.     Short  fruit  spurs  absent;  native  species    150 


208  TREES  IN  WINTER 

149.     Habit  erect,  generally  with  a  central  leader 

^  ^^       Sweet    Cherry   (Prunus   avium)   p.368 

149.  Habit  spreading,  without  central  leader;  buds  smaller;  twigs  more 
slender Sour  Cherry  (Prunus  Cerasus)  p.370 

150.  Bud-scales  gray-margined;   buds  generally  over  5   mm.   long;   bark 

smooth;  generally  only  a  shrub 

Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  virginianaj  p.364 

150.  Bud-scales    uniform    in    color;    buds    generally    under    5    mm.    long; 

bark   becoming   rough-scaly;    a   small   to   large   tree 

Wild  Black  Cherry  (Prunus  serotinaj  p.362 

151.  Native  species,   growing  wild    152 

151.  Cultivated   species.      Varieties   chiefly   of   the   American,    European, 
or  Japanese   type   of  Plum,   p.374 

152.  Buds  generally  under  4  mm.  long 

American  \^^ild  Plum  (Prunus  americana)  p.374 

152.     Buds  generally  over  4  mm.  long.  Canada  Plum  (Prunus  nigra)  p.372 

THE  SUMACHS 
Rhus. 


i 


Shrubs  or  small  trees  with  pithy  twigs  and  milky  or  watery  juice; 
leaf-scars  alternate,  more  than  2-ranked;  bundle-scars  numerous  scat- 
tered or  in  a  single  curved  line;  stipule-scars  absent;  terminal  bud 
present  or  absent;  fruit  a  small  drupe  borne  on  erect  or  drooping 
clusters. 

153.     Terminal  bud  present;  fruit  smooth  white  in  loose  drooping  clus- 
ters  Poison  Sumach  (Rhus  Vernix)  p.394 

153.  Terminal  bud  absent;  fruit  more  or  less  hairy,  red,  in  dense  erect 
clusters     154 

154.  Leaf-scars  narrow,  V-shaped,  nearly  encircling  the  buds;  cut  twig 
showing  milky  juice   155 

154.  Leaf-scars     broader;     inversely     triangular     to     broadly     crescent- 
shaped;  twig  with  watery  juice  and  resinous  taste 

Dwarf  Sumach  (Rhus  copallina)  under  Comparisons  p.392 

155.  Twigs  densely  hairy Staghorn  Sumach  (Rhus  typhina)  p.392 

155.     Twigs    smooth 

Smooth   Sumach   (Rhus  glabra)   under  Comparisons  p.392 

THE  MAPLES 
Acer. 


Leaf-scars  opposite,  narrow  U  or  V-shaped;  bundle-scars  conspicuous, 
equidistant,  typically  3,  though  sometimes  each  of  these  becomes 
compounded;   fruit   winged,   in  pairs. 

156.     Conspicuous,    narrow   tooth    present   between    leaf-scars    157 

156.  Conspicuous  tooth  absent  from  between  leaf-scars   159 

157.  Buds  white-downy,  collateral  buds  generally  present,  twigs  gener- 
ally  with   a  bloom. Box  Eliler  (Acer  Negundo)  p.412 

157.  Buds  smooth,  collateral  buds  never  present,  twigs  without  bloom 
158 

158.  Buds  with  only  one  pair  of  scales  visible,  older  branchlets  white- 
streaked Striped  Maple  (Acer  pennsylvanicum)  p.398 

158.  Buds  with  several  pairs  of  scales  visible,  branchlets  not  white- 
streaked Norway    Maple    (Acer   platanoides)   p.408 

159.  Outer  single  pair  of  bud-scales  equalling  the  bud  in  length,  their 
edges  meeting  and  enclosing  the  bud,  therefore  generally  only 
one  pair  of  scales  visible;  pith  brown;  shrubs  or  at  the  most 
small  trees 160 

159.  Outer  pair  of  scales  shorter  than  bud,  their  edges  not  meeting, 
therefore  several  pairs  of  scales  visible;  trees   161 

160.  Buds  and  twigs  stout,  smooth;  young  bark  with  longitudinal  white 
lines Striped  Maple  (Acer  pennsylvanicum)  p.398 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  209 

160.  Buds  and  twigs  more  slender,  both  buds  and  twigs  (at  least  toward 

tip)  white-downy,  white  lines  absent  from  bark 

Mountain  Maple  (Acer  spicatum)  p.400 

161.  Buds  brown,  narrow,  sharp-pointed,   generally  4-8  pairs  of  closely 

over-lapping   scales  visible,   collateral   buds   absent 

Sugar    Maple    (Acer   saccharum   p.402 

161.  Buds  red  or  green,  broader,  blunt-pointed,  fewer  scales  visible  162 

162.  Terminal  buds  small,  red,  generally  under  5  mm.  long  and  not 
distinctly  larger  than  lateral  buds;  collateral  buds  generally 
present;   pith   often   pink;   native   trees    163 

162.  Terminal  buds  large,  stout,  generally  over  5  mm.  long  and  gener- 
ally distinctly  larger  than  lateral  buds;  collateral  buds  never 
present;   European   trees    164 

163.  Broken  twigs  with  rank  odor,  bark  falling  away  in  large,  thin 
flakes  on  old  trees,  branchlets  strongly  tending  to  grow  down- 
ward  and   curve   upward   at    their  tips 

Silver  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum)  p.404 

163.  Broken  twigs  without  rank  odor,  bark  rough  on  old  trees  but  gen- 
erally not  flaking  in  large  thin  scales,  branchlets  less  markedly 
curved Red   Maple   (Acer  rubrum)  p.406 

164.  Buds  red,  inner  scales  covered  with  rusty  wool;  adjacent  edges  of 
leaf-scars  meeting  and  forming  a  slight  projection;  bark  close- 
ridged,    not    flaky Norway   Maple   (Acer  platanoides)   p.40S 

164.     Buds    green,    inner    scales    white-woolly,    edges    of    leaf-scars    not 

meeting;   bark  flaking  off  in   squarish   scales 

Syeamore  Maple  (Acer  Pseudo-PlatanusJ  p.410 

THE  ASHES 
Fraxinus. 


Leaf-scars  opposite,  large,  conspicuous;  bundle-scars  numerous, 
minute,  forming  a  curved  line  often  more  or  less  confluent;  buds  stout, 
scurfy,  brown  or  black  with  ovate  bud-scales  opposite  in  pairs;  twigs 
stout  and  brittle;   fruit   winged. 

165.     Leaf-scars   deeply  concave   on   upper  margin 

White  Ash  (Fraxinus  americana)  p.422 

165.  Leaf-scars    not    deeply    concave    on    upper    margin,    semicircular    to 
shield-shaped      166 

166.  Bark    soft-scaly;    buds    generally    black;    last    pair    of    leaf-scars 
generally  some   distance   below   end   of  twig  giving  a   stalked-like 

appearance    to    the    terminal    bud 

Blaek    Ash   (Fraxinus   nigra)    p.426 

166.  Bark   ridged,  not  soft-scaly    167 

167,'     Buds  black;   trees  found  only  in  cultivation 

European  Ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior)  under  Comparisons  p.424 

167.  Buds    dark    brown;    trees   native    168 

168.  Twigs  downy Red  Ash  (Fraxinun  pennsylvanica)  p.424 

168.     Twigs   smoeth.     Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  pennsylvanica,  var.   lanceolata) 

under  Comparisons  p.424 


210  TREES  IN  WINTER 

WHITE  PINE 
Soft  Pine,  Weymouth  Pine. 

Pinus  Strobus  L. 


HABIT — The  tallest  conifer  of  New  England,  50-80  ft.  high  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  2-4  ft.,  in  virgin  forests  of  northern  New  England 
trees  have  been  found  over  150  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  7 
ft.;  trunk  straight,  tapering  gradually,  normally  continuous  into  the 
crown,  with  wide-spreading,  horizontal  limbs,  in  young  trees  generally 
arising  in  whorls  of  five,  and  with  secondary  branches  in  the  same  plane, 
producing  characteristic  horizontal  layers;  head  broadly  conical,  spray 
delicate,    bluish-green. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches,  smooth,  greenish-brown, 
becoming  fissured  into  comparatively  shallow,  broad,  flat-topped,  longi- 
tudinal ridges. 

TW^IGS — Slender,    light    brown,    smooth    or    slightly    hairy,    resinous. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  5,  without  sheaths  in  winter,  soft,  bluish- 
green,  flexible,  3-5  inches  long,  slender,  3-sided.  MICROSCOPIC 
SECTION — sh,owing  a  single  fibro-vascular  bundle,  1  or  2  peri- 
pheral resin-ducts,  a  single  layer  of  strengthening  cells  only  beneath  the 
epidermis,  stomata  only  on  the  two  inner  sides. 

BUDS — Ovate  to  oblong,  about  1  cm.  long,  sharp-pointed,  bud-scales 
long,  pointed,   yellowish-brown. 

FRUIT — Cones,  4-10  inches  long,  stalked,  drooping,  cylindrical  and 
more  or  less  curved.  SCALES — thin,  not  thickened  at  apex  and  without 
spines.     Seeds  winged. 

COMPARISONS — The  White  Pine  is  the  only  Pine  of  New  England 
that  has  5  needles  in  a  cluster.  The  layered  arrangement  of  its 
secondary  branches  enables  it  to  be  recognized  as  far  as  it  can  be  seen. 
Young  trees  can  be  further  distinguished  from  the  Pitch  or  Red  Pines 
by  the  greater  delicacy  and  bluer  color  of  the  leafage.  Frequently  the 
terminal  bud  of  the  central  leader  is  killed  by  an  insect,  the  Pine 
Weevil,  thus  interrupting  the  growth  and  causing  one  or  more  of  the 
young  lateral  branches  to  grow  erect  to  take  its  place.  Gnarled  old 
specimens  which  have  many  times  in  their  lifetime  suffered  these 
insect  injuries  may  present  a  rather  picturesque  appearance  but  are  of 
little  value  for  lumber.  The  tree  photographed  perhaps  had  its  leader 
killed  when  young,  but  despite  the  three  erect  limbs  which  have  taken 
the  place  of  the  single  leader  it  still  shows  the  outline  characteristic 
of  the  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  fertile  soils;  moist  woodlands  or  dry  uplands; 
often  planted  for  ornament,  wind-breaks  and  for  reforestation.  New- 
foundland and  Nova  Scotia,  through  Quebec  and  Ontario  to  Lake 
Winnipeg;  south  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia,  ascending  to  2,500 
feet  in  the  Adirondacks  and  to  4^300  feet  in  North  Carolina;  west  to 
Minnesota  and  Iowa. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Common,  from  the  vicinity  of  the  sea  coast 
to  altitudes  of  2,500  feet,  forming  extensive  forests. 

"U^OOD — Light,  not  strong,  straight-grained,  easily  worked,  light 
brown  often  slightly  tinged  with  red,  largely  manufactured  into  lumber, 
shingles  and  laths,  used  in  construction,  for  cabinet-making,  the  in- 
terior finish  of  buildings,  woodenware,  matches  and  the  masts  of  ves- 
sels. 


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212  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

PITCH  PINE 

Hard  Pine,  Yellow  Pine. 

Pinus  rigida  Mill. 


HABIT — Generally  a  low  tree  30-50  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  1-2  ft.  occasionally  70-80  ft,  in  height  with  trunk  diameter 
of  2-4  ft.;  trunk  more  or  less  tapering,  branches  thick,  gnarled,  often 
drooping,  forming  an  open  pyramidal  or  oblong  head;  foliage  in  coarse 
rigid,  yellowish-green  tufts.  Dead  branches  and  old  persistent  cones 
are  frequent  and  the  tree  has  generally  a  decidedly  scraggly  appearance. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  rough,  broken  into  reddish 
brown  scales,  with  age  becoming  deeply  furrowed  into  broad  flat- 
topped  ridges  separating  on  the  surface  into  rather  loose  dark  reddish- 
brown  scales.  Clusters  of  leaves  and  short  branches  are  not  infre- 
quently formed  directly  from  the  old  trunk  (see  in  photograph  above 
the  tape  measure.) 

TAVIGS — Stout,  light  brown,  not  downy,  roughened  especially  after  the 
fall  of  the  leaves  by  the  decurrent  bases  of  scales  subtending  the  leaf- 
clusters. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  3,  with  persistent  sheaths,  yellowish- 
green,  2-5  inches  long,  stout,  stiff,  spreading  with  pointed  tips. 
MICROSCOPIC  SECTION — 3-sided,  showing  2  fibro-vascular  bundles, 
resin-ducts  located  intermediate  between  bundles  and  periphery, 
c+T-engthening  cells  beneath  the  epidermis  in  patches  several  layers 
thick,  generally  surrounding  the  resin-ducts  and  at  one  side  of 
the  vascular  bundles,  stomata  on  all  three  sides. 

BUDS — Cylindrical  to  ovate,  pointed,  resin-coated,  scales  reddish- 
brown. 

FRUIT — Cones  li/^-4  inches  long,  without  stalks,  ovate  becoming  more 
or  less  spherical  when  opened,  borne  laterally,  singly  or  in  clusters 
at  about  a  right  angle  to  the  twig,  often  remaining  on  the  branches 
for  ten  or  a  dozen  years  and  frequently  found  on  trees  only  a  few 
feet  high.     SCALES — thickened  at  tip  and  with  a  stiff  recurved  prickle. 

COMPARISONS — The  Pitch  Pine  is  the  only  native  Pine  in  New 
England  that  has  three  needles  in  a  cluster.  Its  ragged  appearance  with 
frequent  dead  branches,  persistent  cones,  and  yellowish-green,  stiff 
foliage  renders  it  easily  distinguished  from  the  White  and  Red  Pines 
without  examination  of  the  needles. 

DISTRIBUTION — Most  common  in  dry,  sterile  soils,  occasional  in 
swamps.  New  Brunswick  to  Lake  Ontario;  south  to  Virginia  and  along 
the  mountains  to  northern  Georgia;  west  to  western  New  York,  Ohio, 
Kentucky    and    Tennessee. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — mostly  in  the  southwestern  section  near 
the  seacost;  as  far  north  as  Chesterville,  Franklin  county;  scarcely 
more  than  a  shrub  near  its  northern  limits;  New  Hampshire — most 
common  along  the  Merrimac  valley  to  the  White  Mountains  and  up 
the  Connecticut  valley  to  the  mouth  of  the  Passumpsic,  reaching  an 
altitude  of  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  level;  Vermont — common  in  the 
northern  Champlain  valley,  less  frequent  in  the  Connecticut  valley;  Con- 
necticut— rare  or  local  in  Litchfield  county,  frequent  elsewhere;  com- 
mon in  the  other  New  England  states,  often  forming  large  tracts  of 
voodland,  sometimes  exclusively  occupying  extensive  areas. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  very  durable, 
light  brown  or  red,  with  thick  yellow  or  often  white  sapwood;  largely 
used  for  fuel  and  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal;  occasionally  sawed 
into  lumber. 


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214  TREES  IN  WINTER 


JACK  PINE 
Northern  Scrub  Pine,  Gray  Pine,  Spruce  Pine. 

Pinus  Banksiana  Lamb. 


P.  cUvaricata  auth. 


HABIT — Usually  a  low  tree,  15-30  ft.  in  heig-ht  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  6-8  inches,  under  favorable  conditions  becoming-  50-60  ft.  hig-h  with 
a  trunk  diameter  of  10-15  inches;  with  large  spreading  branches  forming 
an  open  symmetrical  head  resembling  somewhat  the  Spruce  in  regular- 
ity of  outline  or  on  exposed  windy  situations  and  in  poor  soil  becoming 
stunted  with  gnarled  stem  and  irregular  scraggly  distorted  head. 

BARK — Dark  reddish-brown  with  irregular  rounded  edges  roughened 
with  close  scales. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  reddish  to  purplish  brown,  not  downy,  rough- 
ened by  scales  subtending  leaf-clusters. 

IiEAVES — In  clusters  of  2  with  short  persistent  sheaths,  dark 
yellowish-green.  %-li/^  inches  long,  stout,  stiff,  generally  curved  and 
twisted,  flatened  or  concave  on  one  side,  rounded  on  the  other,  tip 
pointed.  MISCROSCOPIC  SECTION — showing  2  widely  separated 
fibro-vascular  bundles,  resin-ducts  located  intermediate  between  bundles 
and  periphery,  a  single  layer  of  strengthening-  cells  around  the  resin- 
ducts  and  one  or  more  layers  beneath  the  epidermis. 

BUDS — Ovate,  short-pointed,   coated  more  or  less  thickly  with  resin. 

FRUIT — Cones  1-2  inches  long,  without  stalks,  conic-oblong  usually 
curved  and  pointed  forward,  appearing  between  or  sometimes  at  the 
whorls  of  lateral  branches,  more  or  less  distorted,  remaining-  closed 
for  several  years,  persisting  on  the  tree  often  for  a  dozen  years. 
SCALES — in  young  cones  with  an  incurved  prickle,  when  mature 
thickened  at  the  apex  without  spines  or  prickles. 

COMPARISONS — The  short  yellowish-green  needles  of  the  Jack  Pine 
will  distinguish  this  species  from  other  Pines.  The  longest  needles  some- 
times approach  in  size  short  needles  of  the  Scotch  Pine  ,but  those  of 
the  Scotch  Pine  are  of  a  bluish-green  color  and  moreover  their  cones 
point  backward  instead  of  forward  as  in  the  Jack  Pine. 

DISTRIBUTION — Sterile,  sandy  soil;  lowlands,  boggy  plains,  rocky 
slopes.  Nova  Scotia,  northwesterly  to  the  Athabasca  river,  and  north- 
erly down  the  Mackenzie  to  the  Arctic  circle;  west  through  northern 
New  York,  northern  Illinois  and  Michigan  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — Traveller  Mountain "  and  Grand  Lake; 
Beal's  Island  on  Washington  county  coast,  Harrington,  Orland  and 
Cape  Rosier;  Schoodic  peninsula  in  Gouldsboro,  a  forest  30  ft.  high; 
Flag-staff;  east  branch  of  Penobscot;  the  Forks;  Lake  Umbagog;  New 
Hampshire — around  the  shores  of  Lake  Umbagog,  on  points  extending 
into  the  lake  rare:  Welch  mountains;  Vermont — rare,  but  few  trees 
at  each  station;  Monkton  in  Addison  county;  Fairfax,  Franklin  county; 
Starkesboro. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close-grained,  clear  pale  brown  or 
rarely  orange  color  with  a  thick  nearly  white  sapwood;  used  for  fuel 
and  occasionally  for  railroad  ties  and  posts;  occasionally  manufactured 
into  lumber. 


Jack  Pine 


216  TEEES  IN  WINTER 


RED  PINE 

Norway  Pine. 

Pinus  resinosa  Ait. 


HABIT — A  tree  50-75  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  in 
Maine,  reaching  a  height  of  over  100  ft.;  trunk  erect,  continuous  into  the 
crown  with  stout  spreading  branches  often  dependent  and  ascending  at 
their  tips,  more  distinctly  whorled  than  in  the  Pitch  Pine,  in  young  trees 
clothing  the  trunk  to  the  ground,  forming  a  broadly  pyramidal  head 
becoming  irregularly  round-topped  with  age.  Foliage  in  long  flexible 
dark  green   tufts. 

BARK — Reddish-brown,  with  shallow  flat  ridges,  separating  off  in 
irregular    thin    flaky    scales. 

TWIGS — Stout,  light  reddish-brown,  not  downy,  roughened  by  decur- 
rent  scales  subtending  leaf  clusters  especially  toward  base  of  each  year's 
growth. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  2,  with  long  persistent  sheaths,  dark 
green,  shining,  3-6  inches  long,  slender,  soft  flexible,  flattened  on  one 
side,  rounded  on  the  other,  with  pointed  tip.  MICROSCOPIC  SECTION 
— showing  2  fibro-vascular  bundles,  peripheral  resin-ducts,  a 
single  layer  of  strengthening  cells  beneath  the  epidermis  and  around  the 
resin-ducts,   stomata  all  around. 

BUDS — Oblong  to  conical,  pointed;  scales   reddish-brown, 

FRUIT — Cones  about  2  inches  long,  without  stalks,  ovate-conical, 
when  opened  more  or  less  spherical,  making  a  right  angle  with  the  stem, 
ripened  cones  remaining  on  the  tree  during  winter.  SCALES — thickened 
at  apex  but  without  spines  or  prickers. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Pine  with  two  long  needles  in  a  cluster 
should  not  be  confused  with  our  other  native  New  England  Pines.  It 
resembles,  however,  the  Austrian  Pine,  but  may  be  distinguished  from 
this  species  by  its  more  slender  flexible  needles  (see  under  Austrian 
Pine). 

DISTRIBUTION — In  poor  soils;  sandy  plains,  dry  woods.  Newfound- 
land and  New  Brunswick,  throughout  Quebec  and  Ontario,  to  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg;  south  to  Pennsylvania;  west  through 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common,  plains,  Brunswick,  (Cum- 
berland county;)  woods,  Bristol  (Lincoln  county;)  from  Amherst 
(westerji  part  of  Hancock  county)  and  Clifton  (southeastern  part  of 
Penobscot  county)  northward  just  east  of  the  Penobscot  river,  the 
predominant  tree,  generally  on  dry  ridges  and  eskers,  but  in  Green- 
bush,  and  Passadunkeag  growing  abundantly  on  peat  bogs  with  Black 
Spruce;  hillsides  and  lower  mountains  about  Moosehead,  scattered;  New 
Hampshire — ranges  with  the  Pitch  Pine  as  far  north  as  the  White 
Mountains,  but  is  less  common,  usually  in  groves  of  a  few  to  several 
hundred  acres  in  extent;  Vermont — less  common  than  the  White  or 
the  Pitch  Pine,  but  not  rare;  Massachusetts — still  more  local,  in  sta- 
tions widely  separated,  single  trees  or  small  groups;  Connecticut — rare 
or  local;  Granby,  Salisbury;  Rhode  Island — occasional. 

"WOOD — Light,  hard,  very  close-grained,  pale  red,  with  thin  yellow 
often  nearly  white  sapwood;  largelv  used  in  the  construction  of  bridges 
and  buildings,  for  piles,  masts  and  spars.  The  bark  is  occasionally  used 
for  tanning  leather. 


Red  Pine 


218  TEEES  IK  WINTER 


AUSTRIAN  PINE 
Black  Pine. 

Pinus  Laricio,  var.  austriaca  Endl. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  reaching  60-80  ft.  in  height;  trunk  erect  contin- 
uous into  the  crown,  branches  in  young  trees  regularly  whorled,  foliage 
in   rigid   dark  green  tufts. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  roughened  with  scaly  ridges,  reddish-brown 
within. 

TWIGS — Stout,  yellowish-brown,  not  downy,  roughened  by  decurrent 
scales  subtending  leaf-clusters  especially  toward  base  of  each  year's 
growth. 

LEAVES — In  ciusters  of  2,  with  relatively  short  persistent  sheaths, 
dark  dullish  green,  3-5  inches  long,  rigid,  flattened  on  one  side,  rounded 
on  the  other,  sharp-pointed.  MICROSCOPIC  SECTION — showing 
2  fibro-vascular  bundles,  resin-ducts  located  intermediate  between 
bundles  and  periphery,  strengthening  cells  beneath  the  epidermis  in 
patches  several  layers  thick  also  surrounding  the  resin-ducts  and  on 
one  side  of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles,  stomata  all  around. 

BUDS — Oblong-conical,  pointed,  sometimes  covered  with  a  white  resin. 

FRUIT — Cones  2i^-3  inches  long,  without  stalks,  ovate-conical,  becom- 
ing broadly  ovate  when  opened,  making  about  a  right  angle  with  the 
stem.        SCALES — thickened  at  apex,  generally  with  a  short   dull  spine. 

COMPARISONS — The  Austrian  Pine  resembles  most  closely  the  Red 
Pine  among  our  New  England  species.  The  stiff  character  of  its 
sharp-pointed  leaves  in  distinction  to  the  soft  flexible  leaves  of  the 
Red  Pine  may  be  observed  by  striking  the  open  hand  against  a  tuft 
of  the  needles.  The  winter  twigs  of  the  Austrian  Pine  are  yellowish- 
brown,  those  of  the  Red  Pine  are  bright  reddish-brown.  The  micro- 
scopic  sections   of  the   leaves   of  the   two   species   are   very   distinct. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  Europe  but  frequently  cultivated  in 
this  country  as  an  ornamental  tree  and  to  some  extent  used  in  forest 
planting. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  rich  in  turpentine  and  very  durable.  In  Europe 
the  wood  is  used  as  a  building  timber  and  turpentine  is  obtained  from 
the  tree. 


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Austrian  Pine 


220  TEEES  IN  WINTER 


SCOTCH  PINE 

Scotch  "Fir." 
Piniis   Sylvestris   L. 


HABIT — A  tree  up  to  70  feet  or  occasionally  120  ft.  in  height;  as 
cultivated  in  this  country  in  the  open,  often  a  low  branching  tree  with 
more  or  less  pendant  limbs  and  inclined  trunk  presenting  a  rather 
straggling  or  unkempt  appearance;  frequently  of  more  erect  habit,  espe- 
cially in  company  with  other  trees. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  scaly,  upper  part  of  trunk  and  branches 
characteristically  smoothish  in  appearance  by  flaking  off  of  the  outer 
bark  in  thin  papery  light-reddish  layered  scales. 

TWIGS — Of  medium  thickness,  dull  grayish-yellow,  not  downy,  rough- 
ened by  scales  subtending  leaf  clusters. 

LEAVES — In  clusters  of  2,  persistent,  sheaths  becoming  lacerated, 
dull  bluish-green  I'Vz-'^'Vz  inches  long,  stiff,  generally  twisted,  flat  or 
concave  on  one  side,  rounded  on  the  other,  pointed.  MICROSCOPIC 
SECTION — showing  2  fibro-vascular  bundles,  peripheral  resin-ducts, 
strengthening  cells  around  resin-ducts,  at  one  side  of  the  bundles  and 
benath  the  epidermis,  stomata  all  around. 

BUDS — Oblong-conical,  brown,  often   somewhat   resinous-coated. 

FRUIT — Cones  li^-2i/^  inches  long,  short-stalked,  grayish  or  reddish 
brown,  conic-oblong,  generally  appearing  with  the  whorls  of  lateral 
branches,  usually  pointing  backward.  SCALES — in  young  cones  with  a 
short  projection  which  when  mature  may  persist  as  a  short  weak  incon- 
spicuous point  or  is  deciduous,  apex  of  scale  thickened  with  a  more  or 
less  prominent  four-sided  boss  often  recurved  especially  toward  base 
of  cone. 

COMPARISONS — The  Scotch  Pine  often  improperly  called  Scotch  "Fir" 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  Pines  native  or  cultivated  in  New 
England  by  the  bald  reddish  appearance  of  the  upper  part  of  trunk 
and  branches,  the  short  bluish-green  leaves  and  the  backward-pointing 
cones. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  European  tree  cultivated  abroad  in  extensive  for- 
ests for  its  timber.  In  this  country  more  or  less  planted  as  an  orna- 
mental tree,  and  sparingly  escaped  from  cultivation.  In  Connecticut 
rare  or  local  as  an  escape;  New  London,  Lyme,  Southington,  Bridgeport. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  reddish-brown,  with  thick  light  yellowish  or  red- 
dish sapwood,  easily  split  and  durable,  corresponding  in  importance 
abroad  to  the  White  Pine  in  this  country. 


. 

^\^te 

4^. 

^K 

1 

w 

ms. 


Scotch  Pine 


222  TREES  IN  WINTER 


AMERICAN  LARCH 

Tamarack,  Hackmatack,  Black  Larch,  "Juniper. 

Larix  laricina  (Du  Roi)   Koch. 

L.  americana  Michx. 


HABIT — A  tree  30-70  ft.  in  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  1-3  ft., 
It  high  altitudes  reduced  to  1-2  feet  in  height;  trunk  erect  continuous 
into  the  crown,  branches  irregular  or  indistinctly  whorled,  in  young 
age  and  when  crowded  and  in  swamps  forming  a  narrow  symmetrical 
pyramidal  head,  in  old  age  becoming  broader  and  of  irregular  form. 
The  Larch  is  the  only  New  England  cone-bearing  tree  that  sheds  its 
leaves  in  the  fall;  specimens  in  winter  consequently  are  frequently 
mistaken  for  dead  trees. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  smooth,  with  age  becoming  roughened  with 
thin,    close,    reddish-brown,    roundish   scales. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  smooth,  pale  orange  colored  to  reddish-brown  with 
short  lateral  wart-like  branches,  with  resinous  taste. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Scattered  on  rapidly  grown  shoots,  very  numerous 
and  strongly  decurrent,  minute,  triangular,  with  a  single  bundle-scar; 
also  on  short  wart-like  branches,  smaller  and  densely  clustered. 

BUDS — Scattered  along  last  season's  twigs,  on  older  growth  at  the 
ends  of  the  short  lateral  branches,  small,  about  1  mm.  long,  spherical, 
reddish,    shining. 

FRUIT — Ovate,  oblong  cones,  about  ^2-%  inch  long  on  short,  stout 
incurved  stalks,  persistent  on  trees  throughout  winter.  SCALES — thin, 
about  a  dozen  or  fewer  in  number. 

COMPARISONS — The  American  Larch  or  Tamarack  as  it  is  more  com- 
monly called  by  woodsmen  is  hardly  to  be  confused  with  any  other 
tree  except  the  European  Larch  ILarix  decichia  Mill.;  L.  europaea  DC.]. 
The  European  Larch  is  a  species  adapted  to  dryer  situations  than  the 
American  form.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  stouter,  yellower 
twigs,  larger  cones,  about  1  inch  long,  with  numerous  cone  scales 
(see  lower  twig  in  plate). 

DISTRIBUTION — Low  lands,  shaded  hillsides,  borders  of  ponds;  in 
New  England,  preferring  cold  swamps;  sometimes  far  up  mountain 
slopes.  Labrador,  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia,  west  to  the  Rocky 
mountains;  from  the  Rockies  through  British  Columbia,  northward  along 
the  Yukon  and  Mackenzie  systems,  to  the  limit  of  tree  growth  beyond 
the  Arctic  circle;  south  along  the  mountains  to  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania;  west  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — abundant, 
filling  swamps  acres  in  extent,  alone  or  associated  with  other  trees, 
mostly  Black  Spruce;  growing  depressed  and  scattered  on  Katahdin  at 
an  altitude  of  4,000  ft.;  Massachusetts — rather  common  at  least  north- 
ward; Connecticut — absent  near  the  coast;  rare  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  state;  Union,  Tolland;  becoming  occasional  westward  and  frequent 
in  Litchfield  county;  Rhode  Island — not  reported. 

WOOD — Very  heavy,  hard  and  strong,  rather  coarse-grained,  very 
durable  in  contact  with  soil,  bright  light  red.  with  thin  nearly  white 
sapwood;  largely  used  for  the  upper  knees  of  small  vessels,  fence  posts, 
telegraph  poles,  railroad  ties,  in  cabinet  making  and  for  interior  finish 
of   buildings. 


Americax  Larch 
European  Larch  (lower  twig  only) 


224  TREES  IN  WINTER 


WHITE  SPRUCE 
Cat,  Skunk  or  Labrador  Spruce. 

Picea  canadensis  (Mill.)  BSP. 
P.  alba  Link. 


HABIT — A  tree  40-75  feet  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  1-2  ft.; 
trunk  straight,  slowly  tapering,  branches  numerous,  slightly  ascending 
or  nearly  horizontal,  with  numerous  lateral,  generally  somewhat  pendant 
branchlets,  spread  in  more  or  less  well  marked  dense  planes,  forming  a 
broad-based  pyramidal  head;   foliage  bluish-green. 

BARK-^Grayish  to  pale  reddish-brown;  on  young  trunks  and  branches 
smoothish  or  slightly  roughened  becoming  in  a  relatively  late  stage 
flaky  with  small  closely  appressed  scales. 

TWIGS — Light,   yellc  w'sh-brown,   smooth. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  on  strongly  projecting 
decurrent  ridges  of  the  bark.     BUNDLE-SCARS — single. 

LEAVES — Bluish-green,  4-angled,  10-25  mm.  long,  blunt  or  sharp- 
pointed,  straight  or  incurved,  without  proper  leaf-stalks  with  a  strong 
rank  odor  when  bruised  which  is  responsible  for  some  of  the  common 
nam,es. 

BUDS — Ovate,   blunt-pointed,   light   brown. 

FRUIT — Oblong-cylindrical  cones,  li/^-2i/^  inches  long,  generally  fall- 
ing the  first  winter.  SCALES — thin,  flexible  and  elastic;  margin  rounded 
or  straight-topped,  generally  entire. 

COMPARISONS— The  White  Spruce  differs  from  our  other  native 
Spruces,  the  Red  and  the  Black,  by  its  smooth  twigs,  less  scaly  bark, 
rather  longer  and  more  nearly  cylindrical  cones  and  usually  by  the 
rank  odor  of  its  leaves;  from  the  Red  Spruce  further  by  its  bluish- 
green  foliage.  From  the  smooth-twigged  Blue  Spruce  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  smaller  cones  and  less  distinctly  layered  arrangement  of  branches. 

DISTRIBUTION — Low,  damp,  but  not  wet  woods;  dry,  sandy  soils, 
high,  rocky  slopes  and  exposed  hilltops,  often  in  scanty  soil. 
Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia,  through  the  provinces  of  Quebec  and 
Ontario  to  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia,  northward  beyond  all  other 
trees,  within  20  miles  of  the  Arctic  sea;  west  through  the  northern 
sections  of  the  northern  tier  of  states  to  the  Rocky  mountains.  Some- 
times cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — frequent  in  sandy  soils,  often  more  com- 
mon than  the  Red  Spruce,  as  far  south  as  the  shores  of  Casco  Bay;  New 
Hampshire — abundant  around  the  shores  of  the  Connecticut  river,  dis- 
appearing southward  at  Fifteen-Mile  falls;  Vermont — restricted  mainly 
to  the  northern  sections,  more  common  in  the  northeast;  Massachusetts 
— occasional  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Berkshire  county;  a  few 
trees  in  Hancock;  as  far  south  as  Amherst,  and  Northampton,  probably 
about  the  southern  limit  of  the  species;  Connecticut — rare,  Waterford, 
a  few  trees  in  a  pasture  as  an  escape  from  cultivation;  Rhode  Island — 
not  reported. 

AVOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  straight  grained,  light  yellow,  with 
hardly  distinguishable  sapwood;  manufactured  into  lumber  in  the 
eastern  provinces  of  Canada,  and  used  in  construction  for  the  interior 
finish  of  buildings  and  for  paper  pulp. 


White  Spruce 


226  TREES  IN  WINTER 

RED  SPRUCE 

Picea  rubra  (Du  Roi)  Dietr. 
P.  nigra,  var.  rubra  Engelm.  ;  P.  ruhens  Sarg. 


HABIT — A  tree  40-75  ft,  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  1-2^ 
ft.;  trunk  straight,  slowly  tapering-;  branches  toward  the  middle  of  the 
tree  horizontal  with  upcurved  tips;  more  or  less  strongly  declined 
toward  the  base  forming  a  narrow  conical  head  somewhat  broader  than 
that  of  the  Black  Spruce;  foliage  dark  yellowish-green. 

BARK — Reddish-brown,    flaky   with   thin    scales. 

TWIGS — Brown,  more  or  less  densely  covered  with  short  rusty  to 
black  hairs, 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  on  strongly  projecting 
decurrent  ridges  of  the  bark.      BUNDLE-SCARS — single. 

LEAVES — Dark  yellowish-green,  4-angled,  10-20  mm.  long,  blunt- 
pointed,   straight   or  curved,  without  proper  leaf-stalks. 

BUDS — Ovate,  pointed,  reddish-brown. 

FRUIT — Ovate-oblong  cones,  l%-2  inches  long,  with  short  stalks  not 
at  all  or  but  slightly  recurved,  falling  the  first  autumn  or  sometimes 
remaining  on  the  tree  a  year  longer.  SCALES — stiff,  thin;  margin 
rounded,   entire  or  slightly  toothed. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Spruce  from  its  close  resemblance  to  the 
Black  Spruce  is  considered  by  some  authors  as  merely  a  variety  of  this 
latter  species  (see  Black  Spruce  under  Comparisons).  It  differs  from 
the  White  and  the  Blue  Spruce  by  its  hairy  twigs  and  yellowish-green 
foliage  and  from  the  Norway  Spruce  by  its  shorter  cones. 

DISTRIBUTION — Cool,  rich  woods,  well-drained  valleys,  slopes  of 
mountains  not  infrequently  extending  down  to  the  borders  of  swamps. 
Prince  Edward  Island  and  Nova  Scotia  along  the  valley  of  the  St. 
Lawrence;  south  along  the  Alleghanies  to  Georgia,  ascending  to  an  alti- 
tude of  4,500  feet  in  the  Adirondacks,  and  4,000-5,000  feet  in  West 
Virginia;  west  through  the  northern  tier  of  states  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — throughout;  most  common  towards  the 
coast  and  in  the  extreme  north,  thus  forming  a  belt  around  the 
central  area,  where  it  is  often  quite  wanting  except  on  cool  or  elevated 
slopes;  New  Hampshire — throughout;  the  most  abundant  conifer  of  upper 
Coos,  the  White  Mountain  region  where  it  climbs  to  the  alpine  area, 
and  the  higher  parts  of  the  Connecticut-Merrimac  watershed;  Vermont 
— throughout;  the  common  Spruce  of  the  Green  Mountains,  often  in 
dense  groves  on  rocky  slopes  with  thin  soil;  Massachusetts — common  in 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Berkshire  county  and  on  uplands  in  the 
northern  sections,  occasional  southward;  Connecticut — rare,  Litchfield, 
Canaan,    Salisbury;    Rhode   Island — not    reported. 

W^OOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  not  strong,  pale,  slightly  tinged 
with  red,  with  paler  sapwood  generally  about  2  inches  thick;  largely 
manufactured  into  lumber  in  the  northeastern  states  and  used  for  the 
flooring  and  construction  of  houses,  for  the  sounding-boards  of  musical 
instruments  and   in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp. 


A 

^^^i 

Red  Spruce 


228  TEEES  IN  WINTER 


BLACK  SPRUCE 
Swamp,  Bog,  Water  or  Double  Spruce. 

Picea  mariana  (Mill.)  BSP. 
P.  nigra  Link  ;  P.  hrevi folia  Peck. 


HABIT— In  New  England  usually  a  small  slender  tree  10-30  ft.  in 
heig-ht  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  5-8  inches,  much  larger  northward  and 
westward,  reduced  to  a  shrub  2-5  ft.  in  height  at  high  altitudes;  with 
relatively  short,  generally  scattered  branches,  horizontal  or  usually 
declined  and  curving  upward  at  the  ends;  in  open-grown  trees,  basal 
branches  frequently  resting  on  the  ground,  taking  root  and  sending  up 
shoots;  crown  an  irregular  open  narrow-based  cone;  foliage  bluish- 
green. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  flaky,  with   thin  scales. 

TWIGS — Brown  or  yellowish-brown,  more  or  less  densely  covered  with 
short  rusty  to  black  hairs. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  on  strongly  projecting 
decurrent    ridges    of   the   bark.      BUNDLE-SCARS — single. 

LEAVES — Bluish-green,  4-angled,  5-15  mm.  long,  blunt-pointed, 
straight  or  slightly  incurved,  without  proper  leaf-stalks. 

BUDS — Ovate,    pointed,    reddish-brown. 

FRXTIT — Ovate  cones,  Vz  to  li^  inches  long,  becoming  nearly  spherical 
when  open,  on  short  strongly  recurved  stalks  generally  remaining  on 
the  tree  for  many  years.  SCALES^ — stiff,  thin;  margin  rounded,  uneven, 
ragged,  toothed  or  rarely  entire. 

COMPARISONS— The  Black  Spruce  closely  resembles  the  Red  Spruce 
from  which  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  shorter,  more  nearly  spherical 
cones  which  generally  remain  for  many  years  on  the  tree,  by  the  more 
ragged  edging  of  the  cone-scales,  by  the  bluish-green  color  of  its  foliage 
and  by  its  habitat  in  swampy  land.  Extreme  forms  of  the  two  species 
Are  sufficiently  distinct  but  they  are  often  difficult  to  distinguish  even- 
in  the  fruiting  condition. 

DISTRIBUTION — Swamps,  sphagnum  bogs,  shores  of  rivers  and  ponds, 
wet,  rocky  hillsides;  not  uncommon,  especially  northward,  on  dry  up- 
lands and  mountain  slopes.  Labrador,  Newfoundland,  and  Nova  Scotia, 
westward  beyond  the  Rocky  mountains,  extending  northward  along  the 
tributaries  of  the  Yukon  in  Alaska. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common  throughout,  covering  extensive 
areas  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees  in  the  central  and  northern 
sections,  occasional  on  the  top  of  Katahdin  (5,215  ft.);  New  Hampshire 
and  Vermont — common  in  sphagnum  swamps  of  low  and  high  altitudes; 
the  dwarf  form,  var.  semiprostrata,  occurs  on  the  summit  of  Mt.  Mans- 
field; Massachusetts — frequent;  Connecticut — swamps  and  sphagnum 
bogs;  rare  or  local  over  most  of  the  state  but  absent  near  the  coast; 
usually  a  small  stunted  tree  5  to  15  ft.  high  but  growing  much  larger 
in  the  cool  swamps  of  Litchfield  county;  in  open  bogs  the  trees  often 
produce  cones  when  not  more  than  5  ft.  high,  and  the  cones  persist  on 
the  tree  for  many  years;  Rhode  Island — North  Scituate. 

W^OOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  pale  yellowish-white,  with  thin  sap- 
wood,  probably  rarely  used  outside  of  Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan  ex- 
cept in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pulp.  Spruce  gum  is  gathered  from 
this  and  the  other  New  England  Spruces.  Spruce  beer  is  made  by 
boiling  the  branches  of  the  Black  and  Red  Spruces. 


Black  Spruce; 


230  TREES  IN  WINTER 


BLUE  SPRUCE 
Colorado  Blue  Spruce,  Silver  Spruce. 

Picea  Menziesii  Engelm. 
P.  Parry  ana  (Andre)  Sarg.  ;  P.  pungens  Engelm. 


HABIT — A  tree  reaching  in  Colorado  a  height  of  100  ft.  and  a  trunk 
diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  muchsmaller  in  cultivation;  branches  rigid,  horizon- 
tal with  short,  stout,  stiff,  lateral  branchlets  arranged  in  horizontal 
planes  giving  a  layered  effect  to  the  tree,  especially  in  the  young 
stages;  older  trees  becoming  less  regular  with  a  thin,  ragged,  pyramidal 
crown;   foliage  bluish-green  to  silvery-white  or  rarely  dull  green. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  scaly,  becoming  deeply  ridged  toward  the 
base. 

TW^IGS — Bright   yellowish   to   reddish-brown,    smooth. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  on  strongly  projecting 
decurrent   ridges   of   the   bark.     BUNDLE-SCARS — single. 

LEAVES — Bluish-green  to  silvery-white  or  rarely  dull  green,  4-angled, 
25-30  mm.  long  on  sterile  branches,  often  not  over  half  as  long  on 
fruiting  branches,  stout,  stiff,  sharp-pointed,  incurved,  without  proper 
leaf-stalks,  with  a  pungent  somewhat  disagreeable  odor  when  bruised, 

BUDS — Ovate,    blunt-pointed,    light   brown. 

FRUIT — Oblong-cylindrical  cones  2i/^  to  4  inches  long,  generally  not 
remaining  on  the  tree  after  the  second  winter.  SCALES — thin,  distinctly 
longer  than  broad  with  narrowed,  flexible,  ragged,  blunt  tips. 

COMPARISONS — The  Blue  Spruce  as  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree 
is  strikingly  distinct  from  other  Spruces  in  its  bluish-green  or  silvery 
foliage  and  the  horizontally  layered  arrangement  of  its  branchlets.  The 
long  stiff  sharp-pointed  needles  and  the  narrowed  elongated  scales  of 
the  large  cones  are  further  characteristic. 

DISTRIBUTION — Along  or  near  streams.  Colorado  and  eastern  Utah, 
northward  to  the  Wind  river  mountains  of  Wyoming.  Often  planted  as 
an  ornamental  tree  in  the  eastern  and  northern  states  and  also  in 
Europe,  especially  individuals  with  blue  foliage. 

W^OOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  weak,  pale  brown,  or  often  nearly 
white  with  hardly  distinguishable  sapwood. 


Blue  Spruce 


232  TREES  IN  WINTER. 


NORWAY  SPRUCE 

Picea  Abies  (L.)  Karst. 
P.  excelsa  Link. 


HABIT — A  large  rapidly  growing-  tree,  50-100  ft.  or  more  in  height 
with  a  trunk  diameter  up  to  2  ft.;  with  spreading  horizontal  or  ascending 
branches  and  in  mature  trees  generally  with  strongly  drooping  lateral 
branchlets,  forming  a  rather  broad  pyramidal  head;  foliage  dark  green. 
The  tree  usually  has  a  single  erect  trunk  continuous  into  the  crown 
but  although  the  tree  photographed  shows  a  double  stem  it  is  typical 
in  general  ovitline. 

BARK — Reddish-brown,  on  young  trunks  and  branches  smoothish  with 
very  fine  flaky  scales  becoming  with  age  roughened  with  larger  thicker 
flaky  scales. 

TAVIGS — Brown,    smooth    or    hairy. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  on  strongly  projecting 
decurrent  ridges  of  the  bark. 

LEAVES — Dark  green  and  usually  shining,  4-angled,  15-25  mm.  long, 
sharp-pointed,    without   proper  leaf-stalks. 

BUDS — Ovate,  pointed,  light  brown. 

FRXTIT — Cylindrical-oblong,  pendant  cones,  4-7  inches  long,  light 
reddish-brown,  falling  after  the  first  winter.  SCALES — thin,  stiff,  gener- 
ally broad'er  than  long,  margin  more  or  less  irregular  and  finely  toothed. 

COMPARISOA^S— ^The  large  cones  form  the  most  distintive  character 
of  the  Norway  Spruce,  and  when  present  easily  separate  this  species 
from  all  others  with  which  it  might  be  confused.  The  pendant  lateral 
branches  generally  strikingly  noticeable  on  the  older  trees  together 
with  the  vigor  of  growth  furnish  good  habit  characters  of  distinction. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  large  tree  of  Europe  especially  abundant  in  Nor- 
way; largely  cultivated  in  this  country  as  ornamental  individual  trees, 
in  hedges   and  for  windbreaks. 

\%^OOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  reddish  to  yellowish  white;  used 
for  spars,   oars  and  masts  to   small  vessels. 


Norway  Spruce 


234  TEEES  IN"  WINTER 

DOUGLAS  FIR 

Red  Fir,  Douglas  Spruce. 

Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Lam.)  Britton. 

P.  mucronata  (Raf.)  Sudw.  ;  P.  Douglasii  (Lindl.)  Carr. 


HABIT — A  tree  under  favorable  conditions  in  the  west  reaching  a 
height  of  200  ft.  or  over  and  a  trunk  diameter  up  to  10  or  12  ft.; 
branches  horizontal  with  more  or  less  pendulus  branchlets  forming  a 
pyramidal  head.  A  number  of  varieties  are  in  cultivation  varying 
somewhat  in  habit  and  color  of  foliage. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  dark  gray,  smooth,  with  few  resin  blisters, 
soon  becoming  roughened,  with  reddish-brown  scales  and  eventually 
deeply  ridged. 

TAVIGS — Reddish  to  yellowish-brown,  more  or  less  downy,  becoming 
with  age  smooth  and  dark  grayish-brown.  Photograph  of  twig  is  about 
%    natural   size. 

LEAVES — Scattered,  sometimes  appearing  somewhat  2-ranked  but 
less  distinctly  so  than  leaves  of  the  Balsam  Fir,  dark  green  above,  pale 
below  with  grayish  lines  of  minute  dots,  flattened,  generally  blunt, 
%  inch  or  more  long,  slightly  narrowed  at  base  but  not  distinctly 
stalked,  arising  at  about  a  right  angle  to  the  twig  and  leaving  in  falling 
a  round  scar  slightly  raised  at  the  base,  slightly  fragrant  and  aro- 
matic when  crushed.  MICROSCOPIC  SECTION — showing  a  single  fibro- 
vascular  bundle,  2  resin-ducts  next  to  the  epidermis,  strengthening  cells 
beneath  the  epidermis  and  generally  around  the  resin-ducts,  giant 
thick-walled  irregularly  lobed  cells  frequently  appearing  in  cross- 
sections  of  the  leaf  on  either  side  of  the  bundle,  stomata  on  the 
under  side. 

BUDS — Comparatively  large,  narrowly  ovate  to  conical,  sharp-pointed, 
reddish-brown,  7-12  mm.  long,  loosely  clustered  at  tips  of  twigs;  bud- 
scales  not  resinous-coated,  often  with  reflexed  tips. 

FRUIT — A  cone  maturing  in  one  season,  pendant,  stalked,  2-4%  inches 
long.  SCALES — persistent,  rounded  on  edges  with  conspicuous  pro- 
truding bracts  which  are  long-pointed  and  laterally  winged  like  the 
feathering  on  an  arrow. 

COMPARISOXS — The  Douglas  Fir  resembles  the  Balsam  Fir  but 
may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  large  dark  brown  buds,  free  from 
resin,  by  the  slightly  projecting  leaf-scars  and  especially  by  the 
cones  with  persistent  scales  and  lobed  bracts.  Further,  a  thin  knife 
section  held  toward  the  light  and  looked  at  with  a  hand-lens  shows  the 
two  resin-ducts  on  the  edge  of  the  leaf  while  those  of  the  Balsam  Fir 
are  located  between  the  edge  and  the  bundle. 

DISTRIBUTION — Throughout  the  Rocky  mountain  system  south  of 
latitudes  55  degrees  north  to  the  Pacific  coast,  forming  extensive  for- 
ests. Planted  for  ornament  in  the  eastern  states  where,  however,  only 
plants  grown  from  seed  obtained  from  the  interior  of  the  continent 
are  successful. 

WOOD — Light  red  or  yellow,  with  nearly  white  sapwood,  very 
variable  in  density,  quality  and  in  the  thickness  of  the  sapwood; 
largely  manufactured  into  lumber  in  British  Columbia,  western  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  and  used  for  all  kinds  of  construction,  fuel,  railroad 
ties  and  piles.     The  bark  is  sometimes  used  in  tanning  leather. 


Douglas  Fir 


236  TREES  IN  WINTER. 

BALSAM  FIR 
Balsam,  Fir,  Balm  of  Gilead  Fir. 

Abies  balsamea  (L.)  Mill. 


HABIT— A  medium  sized  tree,  25-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  l-Z  ft.,  becoming-  a  shrub  toward  the  tops  of  high  mountains- 
branches  usually  arising  in  distinct  whorls  and  throughout  horizontal' 
ascending  or  declining,  or  declining  toward  the  base  horizontal  in  the 
middle  and  ascending  toward  the  top  of  the  tree,  forming  a  symmetrical 
broad-based  conical  head.  A  rapidly  growing  comparatively  short-lived 
tree  losing  its  lower  branches  at  an  early  period. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  smooth  with  raised  blisters  containing  a 
fragrant  oily  resin;  in  old  trees  becoming  somewhat  roughened  with 
small  scales  at  base  of  trunk. 

TW^IGS — Grayish  and  more  or  less  downy,  becoming  with  age  grayish- 
brown  and  smooth,  branchlets  mostly  opposite  arising  at  a  wide  angle. 
Photograph  of  twig  is  about   %   natural  size. 

LEAVES — Scattered,  on  young  trees  and  sterile  twigs  generally 
twisting  so  as  to  appear  2-ranked  as  in  the  Hemlock,  on  upper  fruiting 
branches  and  leading  shoots  generally  covering  the  upper  side  of  the 
twigs;  dark  green  and  shining  on  upper  side,  pale  below  with  grayish 
lines  of  minute  dots,  flattened,  generally  blunt,  about  %  inch  or  more 
long,  slightly  narrowed  at  base  but  not  stalked,  arising  at  about  a 
right  angle  to  the  twig,  leaving  after  falling  a  flat,  round  scar, 
fragrant,  aromatic  when  crushed.  MICROSCOPIC  SECTION — showing  2 
fibro-vascular  bundles  closely  adjacent  and  appearing  as  one  in  a  knife 
section,  2  resin-ducts  between  the  bundles  and  the  epidermis  with 
stomata  chiefly  on  the  under  side. 

BUDS — Small,  broadly  ovate  to  spherical,  generally  less  than  5  mm. 
long,  closely  grouped  at  tips  of  main  twigs;  bud-scales  varnished  and 
glued  together  by  resinous  coating. 

FRUIT — Erect  cones  ripening  in  the  autumn  of  the  first  season. 
SCALES — falling  and  leaving  persistent  through  winter  only  the  erect 
central   axes   to    which   they   were    attached. 

COMPARISONS — The  Balsam  Fir  is  distinguished  from  our  native 
New  England  evergreens  by  its  smooth  blistery  bark  and  by  its  leaves 
which  are  attached  directly  to  the  twig  and  leave  a  round,  flat  scar  on 
falling.  From  the  Hemlock  it  is  further  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  leaf  stalks  and  from  the  Spruce  by  the  flattened  apparently  2-ranked 
leaves.     See  under  Douglas  Fir  for  Comparisons  with  this  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Rich,  damp,  cool  woods,  deep  swamps,  mountain 
slopes.  Occasionally  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Labrador,  New- 
foundland, and  Nova  Scotia,  northwest  to  the  Great  Bear  Lake  region; 
south  to  Pennsylvania  and  along  high  mountains  to  Virginia;  west  to 
Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — very  generally  distributed,  ordinarily 
associated  with  White  Pine,  Black  Spruce,  Red  Spruce,  and  a  few 
deciduous  trees,  growing  at  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet  upon  Katahdin; 
New  Hampshire — common  in  upper  Coos  county  and  in  the  White 
Mountains,  where  it  climbs  up  to  the  alpine  area;  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  state,  in  the  extensive  swamps  around  the  sources  of  the  Con- 
toocook  and  Miller's  rivers  it  is  the  prevailing  timber;  Vermont — 
common;  not  rare  on  mountain  slopes  and  even  summits;  Massachusetts 
— not  uncommon  on  mountain  slopes  in  the  northwestern  and  central 
portions  of  the  state,  ranging  above  the  Red  Spruces  upon  Graylock; 
a  few  trees  here  and  there  in  damp  woods  or  cold  swamps  in  the 
southern  and  eastern  sections,  where  it  has  probably  been  accidentally 
introduced;  Connecticut — rare  cold  swamps  and  woods;  Middlebury,  Go- 
shen, Cornwall,  Salisbury;  also  occurs  as  an  escape  from  cultivation  at 
Woodstock,  Andover  and   Farmington;   Rhode   Island — not   reported. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  coarse-grained,  perishable,  pale  brown, 
streaked  with  yellow,  with  thick  lighter  colored  sapwood,  occasionally 
made  into  lumber,  principally  used  for  packing  cases,  used  largely  in 
manufacture  of  wood  pulp.  From  the  blisters  in  the  bark  Canada 
balsam  is  obtained  which  is  used  in  medicine  and  as  a  medium  for 
mounting  microscopic  preparations.  The  fragrant  leaves  and  small 
twigs  are  used  to  stuff  balsam  or  so-called  "pine"  pillows. 


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Balsam  Fiu 


238  TREES  IN  WINTER 


HEMLOCK 
Hemlock  Spruce. 

Tsuga  canadensis  (L.)  Carr. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  50-80  ft.  in  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
2-4  ft.;  branches  long,  slender,  horizontal  or  drooping  at  base,  ascend- 
ing above,  forming  a  broad-based  pyramidal  head  with  fine  feathery 
spray  giving  a  delicate  airy  appearance  to  the  tree.  The  apex  is  plume- 
like and  generally  bent  to  one  side  indicating,  so  woodsmen  claim,  the 
direction  of  prevailing  winds. 

BARK — Reddish  to  grayish-brown,  with  shallow  broad  connecting 
ridges  somewhat  scaly  on  the  surface, 

TWIGS — Slender,  yellowish-brown,  more  or  less  downy,  branchlets 
generally  not  opposite  and  arising  at  less  than  a  right  angle.  Photo- 
graph  of  twig  is   about    %    natural    size. 

LEAVES — Scattered  but  generally  twisting  so  as  to  appear  2-ranked, 
dark,  slightly  yellowish-green  above,  pale  green  below  with  grayish 
lines  of  minute  dots  on  either  side  of  midrib,  flattened  generally  blunt 
at  the  apex,  about  i/^  inch  long  with  a  distinct  short  stalk,  borne  upon 
a  reddish-brown  decurrent  projection  of  the  bark  which  is  left  as  a 
raised  scar  at  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  MICROSCOPIC  SECTION — showing 
a  single  fibro-vascular  bundle  and  a  large  resin-duct  filling  the  space 
between  the  bundle  and  the  epidermis. 

BUDS — Small,  about  2mm.  long,  ovate,  reddish-brown,  not  resinous- 
coated. 

FRUIT — Small,  stalked  pendant  cones,  ripening  the  first  season,  and 
generally   persistent  through   winter,   about   %   inch   long. 

COMPARISONS — In  its  flattened,  apparently  2-ranked  leaves  the 
Hemlock  resembles  the  Balsam  Fir,  but  aside  from  the  difference  in 
habit  and  bark,  the  leaves  of  the  Hemlock  are  shorter,  distinctly 
stalked  and  leave  projecting  scars  when  they  fall  off.  Prom  the 
Spruces  it  is  distinguished  by  its  distinctly  flattened  and  stalked  leaves 
and  flattened  spray. 

DISTRIBUTION — Cold  soils,  borders  of  swamps,  deep  woods,  ravines, 
mountain  slopes,  and  also  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  through  Quebec  and  Ontario;  south  to  Delaware 
and  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia  and  Alabama,  ascending  to  an 
altitude  of  2,000  feet  in  the  Adirondacks.;  west  to  Michigan  and  Minne- 
sota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant,  generally  distributed  in  the 
southern  and  central  portions,  becoming  rare  northward,  disappearing 
entirely  in  most  of  Aroostook  county  and  the  northern  Penobscot  region; 
New  Hampshire — abundant,  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet  in  the 
White  Mountains,  disappearing  in  upper  Coos  county;  Vermont — common 
especially  in  mountain  forests;  Connecticut — usually  frequent  but  rather 
local  in  its  distribution;  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island — common. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  difficult  to 
work,  liable  to  wind-shake  and  splinter,  not  durable  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  light  brown  tinged  with  red,  with  thin  somewhat  darker 
sapwood;  largely  manufactured  into  coarse  lumber,  employed  for  the 
outside  finish  of  buildings.  The  astringent  inner  bark  furnishes  the 
largest  part  of  the  material  used  in  the  northeastern  states  and  Canada 
in  tanning  leather.  Oil  of  Hemlock  is  distilled  from  the  young 
branches. 


Hemlock 


240  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


COAST  WHITE  CEDAR 
White  Cedar,  Cedar. 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides  (L.)  BSP. 
C.  sphoeroidea  Spach  ;   Cupressiis  thyoides  L. 


HABIT — A  small  tree.  20-50  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
1-2  ft.,  further  south  reaching  90  ft.  in  height  and  a  trunk  diameter  of 
4  ft.;  trunk  tall,  erect,  tapering  gradually,  branches  short,  slender,  more 
or  less  horizontal,  with  delicate  feathery  secondary  branches  and 
branchlets  loosely  enveloping  the  narrow  conical  head  and  surmounted 
by  an  airy,  pliant,  plume-like  terminal  shoot. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  separating  off  in  narrow,  shreddy  strips,  more 
or  less  spirally  twisted;  on  younger  and  sometimes  also  on  older 
trunks  the  bark  separates  off  in  broader  reddish-brown  strips,  (see 
photograph   of  young  trunk). 

T^VIGS — Generally  less  than  1.5  mm.  thick,  slightly  but  not 
prominently  flattened,  arranged  in  more  or  less  fan-shaped  clusters  in 
planes  at  various  angles,  the  last  season's  growth  bluish-green  from  the 
complete  covering  of  minute  leaves,  with  death  of  leaves  the  second 
season  becoming  reddish-brown,  older  growth  slowly  losing  its  leaves 
and  marked  by  scars  of  deciduous  branchlets.  Photograph  of  twig  is 
about   %   natural   size. 

LiEAVES — Minute,  scale-like,  1-2  mm.  long,  appressed  and  closely 
overlapping,  opposite  in  4  ranks,  but  not  giving  a  conspicuously  4-sided 
appearance  to  the  twigs,  more  or  less  keeled  and  with  a  raised  glandular 
dot  at  least  on  leaves  of  rapidly  grown  shoots,  with  spicy  aromatic  odor 
when   crushed. 

FRUIT — Small,  spherical  cones,  5-8  mm.  in  diameter,  inconspicuous  in 
winter,  opening  toward  the  center  never  toward  the  base,  maturing 
the  first  season  and  persistent  through  the  winter.  SCALES — thickened, 
woody,  shield-shaped,  with  a  slight  projection  in  middle,  each  perched 
on   a   stalk    connecting    it    with    the    center   of   the    cone;    seeds    winged. 

COMPARISONS — The  Coast  White  Cedar  resembles  the  Arbor  Vitae 
as  indicated  under  this  species  but  its  twigs  are  only  slightly  flattened, 
the  clusters  of  twigs  are  less  distinctly  fan-shaped,  the  twigs  and  leaves 
are  smaller  and  the  leaves  are  of  a  bluish  rather  than  of  a  yellowish- 
green.  The  cones  are  distinctive,  being  spherical  and  with  thickened 
shield-shaped  scales  perched  on  stalks  connecting  them  with  the  center. 
Aside  from  the  fruit  characters  which  separate  them,  the  Coast  White 
Cedar  is  distinguished  from  the  Red  Cedar  by  the  more  or  less  distinct 
fan-shaped  arrangement  of  its  twigs,  the  absence  of  two  kinds  of  leaves, 
the  more  distinct  glandular  dot  generally  present  on  the  leaf  and  by 
the  fact  that  the  twigs  are  round  or  slightly  compressed  in  section 
and  not  distinctly  4-sided  as  are  those  of  the  Red  Cedar. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  deep  swamps  and  marshes,  which  it  often  fills 
to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees,  mostly  near  the  seacoast.  Cape  Breton 
island  and  near  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  perhaps  introduced  in  both; 
southward,  coast  region  to  Florida  and  west  to  Mississippi. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — reported  from  the  southern  part  of  York 
county;  New  Hampshire — Manchester;  Rockingham  county  near  the 
coast;  Vermont — no  station  known;  Massachusetts — occasional  in  central 
and  eastern  parts,  very  common  in  the  southeast;  Connecticut — rare  in 
western  and  central  districts — Danbury  and  New  Fairfield,  becoming  oc- 
casional or  frequent  eastward;  Rhode  Island — common. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close-grained,  slightly  fragrant,  light 
brown,  tinged  with  red.  largely  used  in  boat  building,  and  cooperage 
and  for  woodenware,  shingles,  the  interior  finish  of  houses,  fence  posts 
and  railroad  ties. 


Coast  White  Cedar 


242  TREES  IN  WINTER 

ARBOR  VITAE 
White  Cedar,  Cedar. 

Thuja  occidentalis  L. 


HABIT — Commonly  25-50  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of  1-.' 
ft.,  in  northern  Maine  occasionally  reaching,  a  height  of  70  ft.  anc: 
a  trunk  diameter  of  3-5  ft.;  trunk  more  or  less  lobed  and  buttressed 
at  base,  often  inclined  and  twisted,  frequently  dividing  into  two  or 
more  stout,  erect  stems;  branches  short,  horizontal,  lower  branches  often 
strongly  declined,  branchlets  numerous,  forming  a  dense,  conical  head 
clothed  with   foliage  to  near  the  base. 

BARK — Ashy  gray  to  light  reddish-brown,  separating  off  in  long, 
narrow,  flat,  shreddy  strips,  often  more  or  less  spirally  twisted. 

TVv'IGS — Generally  more  than  2  mm.  wide,  decidedly  flattened, 
arranged  in  fan-shaped  clusters,  placed  vertically  or  in  planes  at 
various  angles,  often  mistaken  for  the  true  leaves  which  are  minute 
and  completely  cover  the  last  season's  growth,  dark  A^ellowish-green, 
paler  on  the  underside,  with  the  death  of  the  leaves  in  the  second  season 
becoming  pale  cinnamon  brown  and  later  shining  reddish-brown,  round 
in  section,  swollen  at  place  of  attachment  to  main  branch,  and  marked 
by  scars  of  deciduous  branchlets.  Photograph  of  twig  is  about  %  nat- 
ural  size. 

LEAVES — Minute,  3-6  mm.  long,  scale-like,  appressed  and  closely 
overlapping,  opposite  in  4.  ranks;  on  the  flattened  spray  those  in  the 
side  pairs  keeled,  those  in  the  other  pair  flat,  ovate,  each  with  a  single 
raised  glandular  spot  especially  conspicuous  on  leaves  of  leading 
shoots;  with  a  characteristic  camphor-like  aromatic  odor  when  crushed, 

FRl'IT — Small,  oblong  cones,  about  i^  inch  long,  pale  reddish-brown, 
opening  to  the  base  when  mature,  maturing  the  first  season  and  persis- 
tent through  the  winter.  SCALES — 6-12,  thin,  oblong,  dry  with  margins 
mostly  entire. 

COMPARISONS — The  Arbor  Vitae  is  often  called  White  Cedar  and 
resembles  the  Coast  White  Cedar,  which  likewise  is  often  known  as 
White  Cedar,  in  its  bark,  its  habit  of  growth  and  its  flattened  fan- 
shaped  spray.  The  twigs  of  the  Arbor  Vitae  are  much  more  flattened 
and  larger  and  the  clusters  of  twigs  more  decidedly  fan-shaped;  the 
leaves  are  also  larger  and  of  a  yellowish-green  color.  The  cones  of 
the  two  species  are  decidedly  different,  those  of  the  Arbor  Vitae  being 
oblong  with  thin  scales  opening  to  the  base  of  the  cone,  those  of  the 
Coast  White  Cedar  being  spherical  with  thickened  shield-shaped  scales, 
perched  on  stalks  attatched  to  the  center  of  the  cone. 

DISTRIBITTIOjV— Low,  swampy  lands,  rocky  borders  of  rivers  and 
ponds.  Often  cultivated  as  single  ornamental  trees  and  in  hedges. 
Southern  Labrador  to  Nova  Scotia;  west  to  Manitoba;  south  along  the 
mountains   to    North    Carolina    and    East    Tennessee;    west    to    Minnesota, 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — throughout  the  state;  most  abundant 
in  the  central  and  northern  portions,  forming  extensive  areas  known 
as  "Cedar  Swamps";  sometimes  bordering  a  growth  of  Black  Spruce 
at  a  lower  level;  New  Hampshire — mostly  confined  to  the  upper  part 
of  Coos  county,  disappearing  at  the  White  river  narrows  near  Han- 
over; seen  only  in  isolated  localities  south  of  the  White  Mountains; 
Vermont — common  in  swamps  at  levels  below  1.000  ft.;  Massachusetts — 
Berkshire  county;  occasional  in  the  northern  sections  of  the  Connecti- 
cut river  valley;  Connecticut — rare,  Canaan,  on  a  limestone  ridge  and  in 
a  nearby  swamp,  Salisbury,  rocky  hillsides  and  at  another  locality  in  a 
deep  swamp;  apparently  native  at  these  three  localities;  escaped  from 
cultivation  to  fields  and  roadsides  at  Norwich,  East  Hartford,  Killingly 
and  Windsor;   Rhode  Island — not   reported. 

AVOOn — Light,  soft,  brittle,  very  coarse-grained,  durable,  fragrant, 
pale  yellowish-brown,  largely  used  in  Canada  and  the  northern  states, 
for  fence  posts,  rails,   railroad  ties,   spools  and  shingles. 


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AUBOli  X'^ITAE 


244  TREES  IN  WINTER 


COMMON  JUNIPER 

Dwarf  Juniper. 

Juniperus  communis  L. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  5-15  ft.  high;  in  the  type  form  with 
generallj'  several  erect  stems,  bearing  erect  branches  densely  clothed 
with  foliage,  forming  a  narrow  or  rather  broad  compact  plume-like 
erect  growth  (habit  picture  at  the  right);  in  the  more  common  dwarf 
variety  \_Juniperv,s  communis,  var.  depressa  Pursh;  J.  nana  of  Britton's 
Manual  in  part;  J.  communis,  var.  canadensis  Loud.;  J.  communis,  var. 
alpina  Gray's  Manual  ed.  6  in  part],  with  low-lying  branches,  frequently 
rooting  below,  radiating  from  the  center  and  curving  upwards  to  form 
low,  broad,  round  mats  resembling  gigantic  birds'  nests  1  to  3 
ft.   high   and   often    10   to   20    ft.    in   diameter    (habit   picture    at   the   left), 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  breaking  on  the  surface  into  thin  papery 
shreddy  longitudinal  layers,  which  lift  at  the  ends  and  edges  exposing 
the  reddish   bark   below. 

TWIGS — Smooth,  light  yellow,  turning  to  red,  prominently  3-angled 
the  first  two  years  by  decurrent  ridges  from  below  the  leaves.  Photo- 
graph of  twig  is  about  %  natural  size. 

LEAVES — All  alike  in  whorls  of  3,  separated  by  short  internodes, 
spreading  from  the  twigs  at  a  broad  angle,  7-20  mm.  long,  awl-shaped, 
stiff  and  sharp-pointed,  free  from  glandular  dots,  compressed,  the 
upper  side  concave  and  conspicuously  streaked  with  a  broad  white  line, 
the  dark  green  under  side  appearing  uppermost  by  the  bending  over 
of  the  twigs  and  leaves;  persistent  for  several  seasons. 

BUDS — Distinct,  scaly. 

FRUIT — About  the  size  of  a  pea,  fleshy,  berry-like,  dark  blue,  covered 
with  a  bloom,  sweetish  with  a  resinous  flavor,  remaining  on  the  plant 
during  winter,  but  as  the  species  is  dioecious,  to  be  found  only  on  a 
part   of  the  plants. 

COMPARISONS — The  .Common  Juniper  is  distinguished  from  its  n-ear 
relative  the  Red  Cedar,  by  its  lower  habit  of  growth,  by  the  fact  that 
its  leaves  are  all  alike  and  without  glandular  dots;  in  distinction 
from  the  typically  appressed  leaves  of  the  Red  Cedar,  the  leaves  of 
the  Common  Juniper  are  spreading  at  a  wide  angle.  They  thus  resemble 
the  juvenile  type  of  leaves  found  on  young  specimens  of  the  Red 
Cedar  and  on  rapid-growing  twigs  of  older  trees  of  the  same  species 
but  may  be  distinguished  by  being  almost  always  in  3's,  wider  and 
longer,  more  distinctly  whitened  above,  with  a  greater  separation 
between  the  nodes  and  by  the  presence  of  distinct  scaly  buds.  A  number 
of  forms  are  described  but  not  always  recognized.  The  dwarf  variety 
(var.  depressa)  is  described  as  having  leaves  8-13  mm.  long,  and  the 
type  as  having  leaves  12-21  mm.  long  but  they  are  best  distinguished 
by  their  different  habits  of  growth  as  shown  in  the  photographs. 

piSTRlRlTTIOX — Tn  poor,  rocky  soil,  pastures  and  waste  open  places. 
Widely  distributed  through  the  colder  regions  and  mountains  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  U.  S.,  in  a  broad  band  extending  westward  from 
Newfoundland  on  the  north  and  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  on  the 
south.  The  dwarf  form  (var.  depressa)  occurs  throughout  New  Eng- 
land. The  tvpp  is  reported  as  less  common  and  as  occurring  in 
Massachusetts  and  southward;  Connecticut — the  type  is  listed  as  rare 
and  is  reported  only  from  Norwich.  It  is  not  uncommon,  however, 
about    Storrs.      The    variety   depressa   is    frequent    throughout    the    state. 

W'OOU — Hard,  close-grained,  very  durable  in  contact  with  soil,  light 
brown,  with  pale  sapwood.  •  In  northern  Europe  the  fruit  is  extensively 
used  in  giving  its  peculiar  flavor  to  Holland  gin. 


Common  Juniper 


246 


TEEES  IN  WINTER 

RED  CEDAR 
Savin,  Cedar,  Red  Juniper. 

Juniperus  virginiana  L. 


HABIT — A,  medium  sized  tree,  25-40  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter 
of  8-20  inches,  much  larger  in  the  southern  states;  trunk  more  or  less 
ridg-ed  and  buttressed  at  base,  with  slender  branches  horizontal  below 
erect  above,  forming-  in  young  trees  a  narrow,  conical  head,  becoming 
in  old  age  wider,  spreading,  ovate,  round-topped,  or  on  bleak  situations 
especially  nearthe  sea  shore  more  or  less  irregularly  distorted. 

BARK — Light  reddish-brown  separating  off  in  long  narrow  shreddy 
strips  more  or  less  fringed  at  the  edges,  frequently  somewhat  spirally 
twisted. 

TWIGS — Generally  4-sided'  in  mature  trees,  green  from  covering  of 
minute  leaves,  not  flattened  nor  arranged  in  fan-shaped  clusters, 
becoming  reddish-brown  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves.  Photograph  of 
twigs  is  about  %  natural  size. 

LEAVES — Dark  green  or  reddish-brown,  with  aromatic  odor  when 
crushed,    persistent    for    several    years,    of   two    kinds: — • 

1.  The  form  typical  of  the  species;  about  2  mm.  or  less  long,  scale- 
like, opposite  in  pairs,  forming  4  ranks,  closely  overlapping  and 
appressed,  rounded,  with  or  without  an  inconspicuous  glandular  dot  on 
the  back,   ovate,  sharp  or  blunt-pointed.      (See  left  hand  twig.) 

2.  The  juvenile  form;  occurring  often  exclusively  on  very  young 
trees  and  also  frequently  together  with  the  typical  form  on  older 
trees;  narrow,  awl-shaped  to  needle-shaped,  sharp-pointed  without 
glands,  spreading,  scattered  and  not  overlapping,  opposite  or  in  3's, 
5-20    mm.    long.      (See    right    hand    twig.) 

BUDS — Inconspicuous. 

FRUIT — About  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  fleshy,  berry-like,  dark-blue, 
covered  with  a  bloom,  sweetish  with  a  resinous  flavor,  containing  gen- 
erally 1-2  bony  seeds.  The  fruit  remains  on  the  tree  during  winter  but 
the  species  is  dioecious  and  consequently  not  all  the  trees  bear  fruit. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Cedar  resembles  the  Coast  White  Cedar  but 
it  fails  to  show  a  flattened  fan-shaped  arrangement  of  its  twigs,  its 
twigs  further  are  generally  4-sided  when  bearing  lypical  leaves  and 
on  young  trees  and  generally  on  some  twigs  of  older  trees  leaves  of 
the  juvenile  type  may  be  found.  The  berry-like  fruit  of  the  Red  Cedar 
w^hen  present  is  the  most  distinctive  character  separating  this  species 
from  the  Coast  White  Cedar.  The  Common  Juniper  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  Red  Cedar  trees  that  have  typical  leaves-.  It  resembles 
somewhat  the  juvenile  leaved  form  of  the  Red  Cedar,  however,  but  the 
growth  of  the  former  is  generally  less  upright,  the  leaves  always  in 
3's  and  generally  more  whitened  above  and  the  buds  are  more 
conspicuous. 

DISTRIBUTIOIV — Dry,  rocky  hills  but  not  at  great  altitudes,  borders 
of  lakes  and  streams,  sterile  plains,  peaty  swamps.  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick  to  Ontario;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Kansas   and   Oklahoma. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — rare,  though  it  extends  northward  to 
tne  middle  Kennebec  valley;  reduced  almost  to  a  shrub;  New  Hampshire 
— most  frequent  in  the  southeast  part  of  the  state;  sparingly  in  the 
Connecticut  valley,  as  far  north  as  Haverhill;  found  also  in  Hart's 
location  in  the  White  Mountain  region;  Vermont — not  abundant;  occurs 
here  and  there  on  hills  at  levels  less  than  1,000  feet;  frequent  in  the 
Champlain  and  lower  Connecticut  valleys;  Massachusetts — west  and 
center  occassional,  eastward  common;  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — • 
common. 

AVOOD — Light,  close-grained,  brittle,  not  strong,  dull  red  with  thin 
nearly  white  sapwood,  very  fragrant,  easily  worked;  largely  used  for 
posts,  the  sills  of  buildings,  the  interior  finish  of  houses,  the  lining  of 
chests  and  closets  as  a  protection  of  woolen  garments  against  attacks 
of  moths,  for  pails  and  other  small  articles  of  wooden-ware,  and  es- 
pecially for  lead  pencils.  A  decoction  of  the  fruit  and  leaves  is  used 
medicinally,  and  oil  of  Red  Cedar  is  distilled  from  ^he  leaves  and  wood 
as  a  perfume. 


Red  Cedar 


248  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


GINKGO 
Maidenhair  Tree. 

Ginkgo  biloba  L. 
Salishuria  adiantifolia  Smith. 


HABIT — A  tree  reaching  a  height  of  60-80  ft.,  with  generally  a  single 
erect  trunk  (a  double  trunk  in  tree  photographed)  continuous  into  the 
crown  with  straight,  slender  branches,  making  an  angle  of  "about  45 
degrees  with  the  trunk  and  regularly  parallel  except  those  below,  which 
are  more  or  less  declined,  forming  in  mature  specimens  a  very  regular 
symmetrical  broadly  ovate  to  pyramidal  head.  The  secondary  branches 
are  slender  and  are  but  indistinctly  shown  in  the  photograph.  There  are 
several  horticultural  varieties  including  one  weeping  form. 

BARK — Ashy  gray,  on  younger  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  becoming 
with   age   seamy   and   longitudinally   roughened. 

TWIGS — Rather  stout,  smooth,  yellowish-brown,  shining,  a  thin 
grayish  skin  separating  off  in  narrow  shreds  on  older  twigs;  rapidly 
grown  twigs  of  one  year's  growth,  comparatively  rare,  with  scattered 
leaf-scars;  stout  lateral  or  terminal  spurs  with  thickly  crowded  leaf- 
scars  common,     PITH — pale  yellowish,   with   ragged   outline. 

liEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked  or  more  than  2-ranked,  semi-oval, 
raised,  upper  margin  generally  fringed.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — 2,  often  most  distinct  in  recent  leaf-scars  on  short 
spurs. 

BUDS — Light  chestnut  brown,  short,  conical,  generally  under  4  mm. 
long,  isolated  lateral  buds  on  rapidly  grown  shoots,  divergent,  on  short 
spurs  generally  only  terminal  buds  developed.  BUD-SCALES — about  5 
visible,  broader  than  long,  thickened  and  dotted  toward  the  middle  with 
small  reddish  transparent  lumps. 

FRUIT — A  stone-fruit  with  a  sweet  ill-smelling  flesh.  The  tree  is 
dioecious,  there  being  separate  male  and  female  individual  trees.  On 
account  of  the  disagreeable  odor  of  the  fruit  the  male  trees  are  more 
frequently  planted.  The  two  sexes  are  said  to  differ  in  their  growth 
forms,  a  male  tree  being  more  narrowly  pyramidal  while  the  female 
forms  a  broad  head. 

COMPARISONS — The  Ginkgo  belongs  to  the  Gymnosperms,  an  order 
of  plants  which  are  mostly  cone-bearing  like  the  Pines  and  Spruces.  It 
has  a  peculiarity  with  the  Larch  in  that  it  is  not  evergreen  as  are 
most  of  its  relatives  but  sheds  its  leaves  in  the  fall.  Like  the  Larch, 
too,  it  has  numerous  stubby  spurs  with  crowded  leaf-scars.  It  differs 
from  the  Larch  in  that  its  large  leaf-scars  are  not  strongly  decurrent 
and  are  relatively  far  apart  on  the  rapidly  grown  shoots  and  further 
have  2  bundle-scars. 

DISTRIBUTIOIV — A  native  of  northern  China,  introduced  into  America 
early  in  the  century  and  generally  successful  in  the  eastern  states  as 
far  north  as  eastern  Massachusetts  and  central  Michigan  and  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  in  parts  of  Canada. 


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Ginkgo 


250  TREES  IN  WINTER 


YELLOW  WILLOW 

Golden  Osier. 

Salix  alba,  var.  vitellina  (L.)  Kocli. 

S.  vitellina  Koch. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  reaching-  50-80  ft.  in  height  with  a  trung  diam- 
eter of  3-5  ft.;  trunk  short,  rarely  erect,  generally  inclining  to  one  side, 
dividing  low  down  into  a  number  of  stout  spreading  limbs,  forming  an 
irregular    broad    rounded    head. 

BARK — On  young  stems  smooth,  becoming  with  age  dark  gray  an,: 
deeply  furrowed. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  bright  yellow,  smooth  and  shining  or  dull 
with  more  or  less  dense  covering  of  fine  silky  hairs,  bitter  to  taste. 
LENTICELS — scattered,    inconspicuous.      PITH — more    or    less    5-pointed. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  narrow,  raised,  broadly 
V-shaped,  more  or  less  swollen  at  the  bundle-scars.  STIPULE-SCARS — ■ 
oblique,  close  to  leaf-scars  and  often  appearing  connected  with  them. 
BUNDLE-SCARS— 3. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  about  5  mm.  long,  oblong, 
rounded  at  apex,  smooth  or  more  or  less  silky-downy,  flattened  and 
appressed  against  twig.  BUD-SCALES — a  single  bud-scale  visible, 
rounded  on  back,  flattened  toward  the  twig,  forming  a  cap  to  silky- 
hairy  green  leaves  within. 

FRUIT — A  catkin  of  small  capsules  containing  numerous  hairy  seeds 
ripening  in  spring.  The  Willows  are  dioecious  and  the  male  trees  of 
the  Yellow  Willow  are   seldom  planted   in  this  country. 

COMPARISONS — The  species  of  Willows  are  closely  related  and  have 
hybridized  abundantly.  Their  classification  is  based  largely  upon 
differences  in  the  pistils  and  stamens  but  since  the  Willows  are 
dioecious  and  therefore  bear  the  male  and  female  flowers  upon  separate 
trees,  their  determination  even  when  in  flower  is  often  a  matter  of 
considerable  difficulty.  The  Yellow  Willow  here  described,  a  yellow- 
twigged  variety  of  the  less  common  European  White  Willow  ISalix 
alba  L.],  is  one  of  the  most  common  tree  Willows  -  in  New 
England.  The  European  Weeping  Willow  [Salix  babylonica  L.]  was 
formerly  much  planted  for  ornament  especially  in  cemeteries  and  may  be 
fljstinguished  by  the  drooping  habit  of  its  branches.  The  Black  Willow 
iSalix  nigra  Marsh.],  a  small-budded  species,  is  the  one  sizable  native 
Willow  in  New  England.  The  Willows  may  be  most  readily  separated 
from  the  other  trees  by  the  single  cap-like  scale  to  the  bud  in  con- 
nection  with  the   3-bundle-scars   in  the  narrow  leaf-scar. 

DISTRIBUTION— A  European  tree  much  planted  in  this  country  for 
ornament.  It  has  become  naturalized  throughout  the  populated  regions 
Of  New  England,   in  moist  places,  near  streams  and  ponds. 

WOOD — Very  light,  soft,  tough,  light  brown  in  color  with  thick  nearly 
white  sapwood,  easily  worked  and  taking  a  beautiful  polish;  used  in 
this   country   for   charcoal   and    for   food. 


Yi:li-<)\v   Willow 


252  TEEES  IN  WINTER 


SILVER  POPLAR 

White  Poplar,  Silver-leaf  Poplar,  Abele. 

Populus  alba  L. 


HABIT — A  good  sized  tree  40-75  ft.  high,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
2-4  ft.;  limbs  wide-spreading,  developing  a  series  of  characteristic 
curves  with  their  secondary  branches  which  bend  up,  out  and  downward, 
forming  a  large,  irregular,  open,  broad,  round-topped  head;  spreading 
abundantly  by  means  of  root  suckers. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  limbs  smooth,  characteristically  light 
greenish-gray  or  whitish,  often  with  dark  blotches;  base  of  older 
trunk  at  length  deeply  furrowed  into  firm  dark  ridges.  The  Silver 
Poplar  retains  its  smooth  light-colored  bark  longer  than  our  other 
members  of  the  genus. 

TAVIGS — Slender  or  sometimes  stout,  greenish-gray,  densely  covered 
"With  thick  whitish-cottony  wool  which  can  be  readily  rubbed  off  and 
often  remains  throughout  the  winter  only  toward  the  apex;  where  wool 
is  removed  the  surface  is  shiny;  short  spurs  numerous  with  conspicuous 
raised  leaf-scars  and  with  terminal  buds  only.  LENTICELS — pale, 
round,    raised    dots.     PITH — 5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  semi-circular  to  in- 
versely triangular;  on  short  spurs  narrower.  STIPULE-SCARS — dis- 
tinct.    BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,  simple  or  compound. 

BUDS — Small,  ovate  to  conical,  light  chestnut  brown;  neither  sticky 
nor  fragrant;  shining  or  more  or  less  covered  especially  toward  base 
with  cottony  wool;  lateral  buds  5-7  mm.  long,  terminal  buds  somewhat 
larger,  thicker.  BUD-SCALES — margined  with  very  minute  hairs;  the 
first  scale  of  lateral  buds  anterior.  This  first  scale  in  front  has  a 
scale  directly  above  it,  the  edges  of  the  two  being  essentially  parallel; 
likewise  the  first  scale  in  back  generally  has  a  scale  directly  above  it 
with  similarly  parallel  edges.  The  first  four  scales  therefore  form  two 
ranks  facing  respectively  front  and  back.  This  condition  seems  constant 
for  typical  buds,  but  does  not  hold  for  abnormally  small  buds. 

FRITIT — A  catkin  of  small  capsules,  with  hairy  seeds  ripening  in 
spring. 

COMPARISOIVS — The  Silver  Poplar  acquires  a  roughened  trunk  later 
than  the  other  Poplars,  retaining  the  smooth  whitish-green  appearance 
of  its  bark  as  a  distinctive  character.  Its  generally  delicate  twigs, 
greenish-grav  when  not  covered  with  cottony  wool  which  generally  can 
he  found  at  least  at  the  apex,  furnish  further  characters  that  distinguish 
this  species  from  the  other  Poplars.  The  two  rows  of  scales  with  par- 
allel edges  in  the  lateral  buds  are  found  to  a  less  striking  degree  in 
the  larger  buds  of  the  Small-toothed  Aspen  and  the  Large-toothed 
Aspen.  Bolles'  Poplar  [P.  alha.  var.  Bolleana'i  is  a  variety  of  the  Silver 
Poplar  occasionally  planted.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  type  form  by 
its  narrow  outline  and  appressed  branches,  thus  resembling  the  Lom- 
bardy  Poplar  in  habit.  The  bark  photograph  is  taken  from  a  Bolles 
Poplar. 

DISTRIBUTION — Widely  distributed  in  the  Old  World.  Introduced 
from  England  bv  the  early  settlers  and  soon  established  in  the  colonial 
towns  on  the  western  shore  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  •  Planted  or  sponta- 
neous over  a  wide  area.  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  occasional; 
southward    to    Virginia. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND— Occasional  throughout,  local,  sometimes  com- 
mon. 

AVOOD — Light,  soft,  weak,  reddish- vellow  with  nearly  white  sapwood; 
difficult  to  split  and  to  ignite;  used  in  Europe  for  rollers,  packing 
:;ases  and  flooring. 


-"^^, 


Silver  Poplar 


254  TEEES  IN  WINTER 


SMALL-TOOTHED  ASPEN 
American  or  Quaking  Aspen,  Popple,  Poplar,  Aspen. 

Populus  tremuloides  Michx. 


HABIT — As  generally  found  a  small  tree  35-40  ft.  hig-h,  though  not 
infrequently  reaching  50-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  lYz 
ft.  or  more;  trunk  tapering,  continuous  into  top  of  tree;  main  branches 
slender,  scattered,  often  drooping  at  the  ends  forming  an  open,  narrow, 
round-topped  head;  spreading  by  means  of  root  suckers. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  thin,  pale  yellowish-brown, 
orange-green  or  nearly  white  with  dark  blotches  below  the  branches, 
smooth  with  horizontal  raised  ridges  (often  encircling  limbs);  on  older 
trunks  especially  toward  the  base,  thick,  furrowed  and  nearly  black. 

TWIGS — Slender,  round,  bright  reddish-brown,  smooth,  shining.  Older 
twigs  grayish-brown,  roughened  by  elevated  leaf-scars  and  by  swollen 
bases  of  detached  branchlets.  LENTICELS — light  reddish-orange,  scat- 
tered,   oblong.     PITH — 5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

LiEAF-SCARS — .Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  inversely  trian- 
gular, covered  with  light  colored  corky  layer,  upper  edge  of  scar  more 
or  less  depressed.  STIPULE-SCARS — blackish,  more  or  less  conspicuous, 
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,   simple   or  each   compounded. 

BUDS — Narrowly  conical,  sharp-pointed,  generally  appressed  especi- 
ially  toward  apex  of  twig  or  incurved,  about  5-7  mm.  long,  shining, 
slightly  sticky  but  not  fragrant;  flower  buds  larger,  ovate.  BUD- 
SCALES — 6  or  7  in  number,  smooth,  reddish-brown,  shining,  scarious 
along  the  margins;  the  first  scale  of  lateral  buds  anterior,  (i.e.  facing 
outward),  reaching  about  %  of  the  way  to  the  apex,  often  splitting  at 
the   top. 

FRUIT — A  catkin  of  small  capsules  with  hairy  seeds  ripening  in 
spring. 

COMPARISONS — In  general  habit  and  bark  characters  the  Small- 
toothed  resembles  the  Large-toothed  Aspen.  It  is  readily  distinguished 
from  the  latter  by  its  shining  reddish-brown,  often  slightly  sticky, 
mostly  appressed  buds  which  are  free  from  down.  Those  of  the  Large- 
toothed  Aspen  are  thicker,  dull,  dusty-looking,  more  or  less  gray-downy, 
and  for  the  most  part  divergent.  The  bark  of  the  Small-toothed  Aspen 
is  generally  somewhat  lighter  in  color,  often  nearly  white  and  generally 
earlier  and  more  deeply  roughened  at  the  base;  the  larger  branches  of 
the  Large-toothed  Aspen  have  a  tendency  to  grow  out  at  a  wider 
angle  with  the  trunk  than  those  of  the  Small-toothed  Aspen.  The 
buds  resemble  somewhat  those  of  the  Balsam  Poplar  but  are  much 
smaller,  only  slightly  sticky  and  not  fragrant.  It  is  separated  from  the 
Carolina  Poplar  and  Lombardy  Poplar  by  its  reddish  twigs,  those  of  the 
latter  two  species  being  yellow;  from  the  Silver  Poplar  by  absence  of 
down  on  twigs. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  practically  all  soils  and  situations  except  in  deep 
swamps  though  more  often  in  dry  ground;  one  of  the  first  trees  to 
take  possession  of  clearings  or  burnt  lands.  Newfoundland,  Labrador, 
and  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Hudson  Bay  region  and  Alaska;  south  to  New 
Jersey,  along  the  mountains  in  Pennsylvania  and  Kentucky,  ascending 
3,000  feet  in  the  Adirondacks;  west  to  the  slopes  of  the  Rocky  mountains, 
along  which  it  extends  to  Mexico  and  lower  (i^alifornia. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Common,  reaching  in  the  White  Mountain  region 
an   altitude  of   3,000   ft. 

WOOD — Light  brown,  with  nearly  white  sapwood  of  25-30  layers  of 
annual  growth,  soft,  weak,  and  soon  decaying;  used  in  great  quantities 
for  paper  pulp  and  in,  the  manufacture  of  excelsior. 


Small-toothed  Aspen 


256  TREES  IN  WINTER 


LARGE-TOOTHED  ASPEN 
Popple,  Poplar. 

Populus    grandidentata    Michx. 


HABIT — Generally'  a  small  tree  30-45  ft,  in  height  with  trunk  diameter 
of  up  to  iy2  ft.,  at  times  reaching-  much  greater  dimensions;  resembling 
the   Small-toothed   Aspen;    spreading   by   means   of   root    suckers. 

BARK  Resembling  that  of  Small-toothed  Aspen  though  generally 
with  more  yellow  or  buff  color  to  young  trunks  and  limbs.  The  older 
trunks   seem   to   be   rather  less  deeply   furrowed. 

TWIGS — Stout,  round,  reddish-brown  or  somewhat  yellowish-brown, 
in  early  winter  often  more  or  less  pale-downy  in  protected  portions, 
older  twigs  greenish-gray,   otherwise  resembling  Small-toothed  Aspen. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Resembling  Small-toothed  Aspen  though  the  rather 
larger  stipule-scars  are   often   indistinct   or  absent. 

BUDS — Averaging  larger  than  those  of  Small-toothed  Aspen,  ovate  to 
conical,  pointed,  generally  divergent,  dull,  dusty-looking,  due  to  'fine, 
close,  pale  wool,  especially  at  margins  of  scales;  flower  buds  larger 
and  thicker.  BUD-SCALES — light  chestnut  brown  with  scarious  mar- 
gins: first  scale   of  bud  anterior. 

FRUIT — ^A  catkin  of  small  capsules  with  hairy  seeds  ripening  in 
spring. 

COMPARISONS — The  Large-toothed  Aspen  resembles  the  Small- 
toothed  Aspen  with  which  it  is  frequently  confused.  For  points  of 
distinction  see  under  the  latter  species.  The  Lombardy  and  Carolina 
Poplars  are  distinguished  by  their  yellow  twigs  and  smooth  buds;  the 
Balsam  Poplar  by  its  shining  fragrant  resinous  buds;  the  Silver  Poplar 
by  its  generally  more  delicate,  greenish  twigs  which  are  cottony- 
woolly  at  least  toward  the  apex. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  rich  or  poor  soils;  woods,  hillsides,  borders  of 
ctreams.  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  southern  Quebec,  and  Ontario; 
south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  along  the  mountains  to  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina,   and  Tennessee;  west  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Common,  occasional  at  altitudes  of  2,000  feet  or 
more. 

WOOD — Light  brown,  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood  of  20-30  layers 
of  annual  growth,  weak  and  soft,  used  in  manufacture  of  paper, 
excelsior,  and  to  a  small  extent  for  woodenware. 


Large-toothed  Aspen 


258  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

BALSAM  POPLAR 

Balsam,  Tacamahac,  Balm  of  Gilead. 

Populus  balsamifera  L. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree,  30-75  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter 
of  1-3  feet.;  head  open,  comparatively  narrow,  with  spire-like  tendency; 
spreading-  by  means  of  root  suckers. 

BARK — -On  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  light  brown  tingecl 
with  red.  on  older  trunks  dark  gray  tinged  with  red,  broken  into  broad, 
firm,   rounded  ridges. 

TWIGS — Stout  to  slender,  round,  bright  reddish-brown,  smooth,  shin- 
ing; older  twigs  dark  orange  colored  becoming  gray  tinged  with  yel- 
lowish-green, roughened  by  thickened  leaf-scars;  short  spurs  numerous 
with  terminal  but  without  lateral  buds.  LENTICELS — oblong,  light 
reddish-orange,    scattered.      PITH — 5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked.  large,  3-lobed,  inversely 
triangular,  rather  narrow  for  the  group.  STIPULE-SCARS — distinct. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,    simple   or  compound. 

BUDS — Large,  dark  red,  resinous,  sticky,  fragrant,  especially  if 
crushed,  narrowly  ovate  to  conical  long-pointed,  15-25  mm.  long,  term- 
inal larger  and  relatively  wider  than  lateral  buds.  BUD-SCALES — ■ 
thick,  smooth,  oblong,  pointed,  red  or  green,  saturated  with  fragrant 
amber-colored  resin  which  on  the  outside,  where  exposed  to  the  air, 
forms  a  dark  reddish,  shining  varnish  to  the  bud;  the  first  scale  of 
lateral  bud  anterior. 

FRUIT — A  catkin  of  small  capsules  with  hairy  seeds  ripening  in 
spring. 

COMPARISOXS — The  Balsam  Poplar  with  its  varieties  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  forms  by  the  fragrance  of  its  large  resinous  buds.  Twigs 
and  buds  resemble  those  of  the  Small-toothed  Aspen  in  color  but  are 
much  larger  and  are  distinctly  fragrant  especially  if  crushed.  The 
Balm  of  Gilead  [Popuhis  candicans  Ait.]  is  considered  a  distinct  species  by 
some  and  by  others  only  a  variety.  It  is  extensively  planted.  It  differs 
from  the  typical  Balsam  Poplar  in  its  more  spreading  branches  forming 
a  broader  and  more  open  head  but  the  twig  characters  are  closely 
similar.  The  photographs  were  all  taken  from  this  latter  variety,  the 
descriptions  from  the  type. 

DISTRIBUTIOIV — Alluvial  soils;  river  banks,  valleys,  borders  of 
swamps,  woods.  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia;  west  to  Manitoba; 
northward  to  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  along  the  Mackenzie  River  to 
the  Arctic  circle;  w^est  through  northern  New  York,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Dakota  (Black  Hills),  Montana,  beyond  the  Rockies  to  the  Pacific 
coast. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common;  New  Hampshire — Connecticut 
river  valley,  generally  near  the  river,  becoming  more  plentiful  north- 
ward; Vermont — frequent;  Connecticut — local;  river  banks,  wet  woods 
and  roadsides,  usually  as  an  escape  from  cultivation;  Southington, 
Milford,  Wilton,  Sherman,  New  Milford  and  Kent;  apparently  native  at 
Norfolk;  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island — not  reported. 

WOOD — Light,  soft  and  weak;  light  brown,  with  thick  nearly  white 
sapwood;  used  for  pails,  boxes  and  paper  pulp. 


Balsam  Poplar 


260  )  TREES  IN  WINTER 


CAROLINA  POPLAR 

Cottonv/ood,  Necklace  Poplar. 

Populus  deltoides  Marsh. 

P.  monilifera  Ait. ;  P.  canadensis  Moench. 


HABIT — A  large  tree,  the  largest  of  the  Poplars,  75-100  ft.  in  height, 
with  a  trunk  diameter  of  3-5  ft.;  lower  branches  massive  nearly  horizon- 
tal, those  above  arising  at  a  sharper  angle  and  forming  altogether  in  old 
trees  a  broad-spreading,  rather  open  head,  often  as  broad  as  high;  in 
younger  individuals  forming  a  more  pyramidal  head;  of  very  rapid 
growth  hence  much  planted  for  quick  effects.  The  form  cultivated  under 
the  name  Carolina  Poplar  and  considered  by  some  distinct  from  the 
Cottonwood,  is  of  pyramidal  habit  of  growth  with  erect  tapering  trunk 
continuous  to  the  top  of  the  tree  and  producing  branches  in  whorls  at 
the  upper  limit  of  each  year's  growth.  The  habit  photograph  was  taken 
from  the  more  commonly  cultivated  form. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  thin,  smooth,  light  yellowish- 
green.  On  older  trunks  thick,  ashy-gray,  deeply  divided  into  long, 
broad,  flatfish  or  eventually  rounded  ridges  of  characteristic  appearance 
in  native-grown  trees. 

TW^IGS — Stout,  yellowish  to  greenish-yellow,  som-etimes  with  slight 
tinge  of  brown,  smooth,  round  or  marked  especially  on  vigorous  trees 
with  more  or  less  prominent  wings  running  down  from  the  two  sides 
and  bases  of  the  leaf-scars.  LENTICELS — large,  pale,  elongated  longi- 
tuamally. 

LifiAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more    than    2-ranked,     large,   3-lobed,   inver- 
sely     triangular.      STIPULE-SCARS — generally    conspicuous,     blackish, 
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,   simple   or  compound. 

BUDS — Conical,  large,  the  lateral  buds  reaching  15  mm.,  and  the 
terminal  buds  reaching  20  mm.  in  length,  frequently  much  smaller; 
lateral  buds,  especially  the  larger  flower  buds,  generally  divergent  and 
often  strongly  recurved;  terminal  bud  more  or  less  distinctly  5-sided. 
BUD-SCALES — smooth,  light  chestnut  brown,  shining,  first  scale  of 
lateral  bud  anterior;  outer  scales  slightly  resinous-sticky,  inner  scales 
thickly  coated  with  a  light  yellow  sticky  resin  which  is  scarcely  fra- 
grant. 

FRUIT — A  catkin  of  small  capsules  with  hairy  seeds  ripening  in 
spring. 

COMPARISONS — The  Carolina  Poplar  is  distinguished  from  our 
other  Poplars  except  the  Lombardy  Poplar  by  its  light  yellow  twig-s. 
The  Lombardy  has  somewhat  similar  twigs  but  they  are  more  slender, 
the  buds  are  generally  much  smaller  and  typically  appressed.  Appressed 
buds  do  occur  on  the  Carolina  Poplar  and  divergent  buds  on  the 
Lombardy.  but  they  are  more  typical  on  each  tree  as  indicated.  The 
distinct  habit  of  the  Lombardy  Poplar  is  however  a  sufficient  criterion 
of  this  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  moist  soil,  river  banks  and  basins,  shores  of  lakes 
not  uncommon  in  drier  locations,  often  cultivated.  Throughout  Quebec 
and  Ontario  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains;  south  to  Florida,  west 
to  the  Rocky  mountains. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — not  reported;  New  Hampshire — restricted 
to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Connecticut  river,  disappearing  near 
the  northern  part  of  Westmoreland;  Vermont — western  sections,  abun- 
dant along  the  shores  of  the  Hoosac  river  in  Pownal  and  along  Lake 
Champlain;  in  the  Connecticut  valley  as  far  north  as  Brattleboro; 
Massachusetts — along  the  Connecticut  and  its  tributaries;  Connecticut — • 
frequent  in  the  valleys  of  the  Connecticut,  Farmington  and  Housatonic 
rivers;  rare  or  occasional  elsewhere;  Rhode  Island — occasional. 

WOOD — Dark  brown,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood,  light  and  soft, 
warping  badly  in  drying  and  difficult  to  season,  used  for  paper  pulp 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes. 


Carolina  Poplak 


262  TREES  IN  WINTER 


LOMBARDY  POPLAR 

Populus  nigra,  var.  italica  Du  Roi. 
P.  clilatata  Ait.  ;  P.  pyrmnidalis  Rozier  ;  P.  fastigiata  Desf. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  reaching-  over  100  ft.  in  height  with  a  buttressed 
tapering,  continuous  trunk,  sometimes  as  much  as  6-8  ft.  in  diameter 
at  base;  branches  numerous,  arising  low  on  the  trunk,  bending  upward 
at  a  sharp  angle  with  numerous  branchlets  also  sharply  ascending  to 
form  a  very  narrow  spire-shaped  tree  of  decidedly  characteristic  ap- 
pearance; spreading  by  means  of  root  suckers.  It  tends  to  retain  its 
leaves  on  the  lower  part  of  the  tree.      (See  bark  picture.) 

BARK — On  old  trees  gray  to  brown,  deeply  furrowed. 

T'^VIGS — Resembling  those  of  Carolina  I'oplar  but  slender,  round  and 
appressed. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Resembling  those   of  Carolina  Poplar,   but   smaller. 

BUDS — Resembling  those  of  Carolina  Poplar  but  for  the  most  part 
appressed,  distinctly  smaller,  terminal  buds  seldom  over  10  mm.  long 
and  lateral  buds  generally  under  8  mm.     in  length. 

FRUIT — Absent,   only  staminate  trees  being  known  of  this   variety. 

COMPARISONS — The  Lombardy  Poplar  is  readily  distinguished  from 
all  our  other  trees  by  its  striking  spire-shaped  habit  of  growth.  In 
twig  characters  it  resembles  the  Carolina  Poplar  but  the  twigs  are 
slender  and  the  buds  average  smaller  and  are  more  characteristically 
appressed. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  European  tree  much  planted  in  this  country  for 
ornament,  escaping  to  a  certain  extent  to  roadsides  and  river  banks. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  weak,  close-grained,  reddish-brown  with  thick 
nearly  white  sapwood,  used  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  manufacture  of 
boxes  and  wooden  ware. 


LOMIJAUDV  PorLAll 


264  TREES  IN  WINTER 


BUTTERNUT 
Oilnut,   White   Walnut. 

Juglans  cinerea  L. 


HABIT — A  small  to  medium-sized  tree  20-45  ft.  in  height,  with 
trunk  diameter  of  1-4  ft.;  comparatively  large  for  the  height;  soon 
dividing  into  a  few  stout  spreading  branches  with  lower  branches 
somewhat  drooping  forming  a  symmetrical,  broad,  low,  round-topped 
head  of  inversely  pyramidal  outline. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  light  gray,  on  older 
trunks  deeply  divided  into  long,  rather  broad,  flat-topped,  whitish  ridges 
separated  by  smoothish,  broader  fissures,  which  are  likewise  gray  or 
frequently  become  black  in  striking  contrast  to  the  whitish  ridges;  inner 
bark  becoming  yellow  on  exposure   to  air,  bitter. 

TAVIGS — Stout,  reddish-buff  to  greenish-gray,  downy  or  nearly  smooth, 
round  or  somewhat  angled  from  lobes  of  leaf-scars,  bitter  to  taste, 
and  coloring  saliva  yellow  when  chewed.  LENTICELS — small,  pale, 
raised  dots.  PITH — somewhat  5-pointed,  star-shaped,  dark  brown, 
chambered,  the  narrow  chambers  a  little  wider  than  the  intervening 
diaphragms. 

liEAF-SCAKS — Large,  conspicuous,  3-lobed,  inversely  triangular;  mar- 
gins elevated,  upper  margin  generally  convex,  seldom  slightly  notched, 
surrnounted  by  a  raised,  downy  pad.  BUNDLE-SCARS — dark,  conspicu- 
ous in  3  U-shaped  clusters, 

BUDS — Densely  pale-downy;  terminal  buds  large,  conical-oblong,  10- 
20  mm.  long,  longer  than  broad,  flattened  oblong  to  conical,  obliquely 
blunt-pointed;  lateral  buds  smaller,  ovate,  rounded  at  apex,  1-3  super- 
posed buds  generally  present  above  axillary  bud,  the  uppermost,  the 
largest,  often  far  alDOve  the  leaf-scar  and  more  or  less  stalked  or 
developing  into  a  twig  the  first  season,  especially  on  rapidly  grown 
shoots;  staminate  flower  buds  lateral,  rather  spherical,  protruding  the 
undeveloped  catkins  like  miniature  scaly  cones  from  the  envelope  of 
short  scales.  BUD-SCALES — thick,  outer  scales  of  terminal  bud  lobed 
at  apex, 

FRUIT — Elongated,  4-10  cm.  long,  husk  thickly  covered  with  sticky 
hairs,  not  regularly  splitting.  NUT — light  brown,  elongated-ovate,  4- 
ribbed,  pointed,  rough,  deeply  sculptured;  within,  2-celled  at  base,  1- 
celled  above;  seed  sweet,  edible,  very  oily,  soon  becoming  rancid. 

COMPARISONS — In  twig  characters  the  Butternut  most  nearly  re- 
sembles the  Black  Walnut  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  this  species 
(see  Comparisons  under  Black  Walnut).  Its  points  of  dissimilarity  to 
the  Bitternut  are  given  under  this  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Roadsides,  rich  woods,  river  valleys,  fertile,  moist 
hillsides,  high  up  on  mountain  slopes.  New  Brunswick,  throughout 
Quebec  and  eastern  Ontario;  south  to  Delaware,  along  the  mountains 
to  Georgia  and  Alabama;  west  to  Minnesota,  Kansas  and  Arkansas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common,  often  abundant;  New  Hamp- 
shire— throughout  the  Connecticut  valley,  and  along  the  Merrimac  and 
its  tributaries,  to  the  base  of  the  White  Mountains;  Vermont — frequent; 
Massachusetts — common  in  the  eastern  and  central  portions,  frequent 
westward;   Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — common. 

AVOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  coarse-grained,  light  brown,  turning 
darker  with  exposure,  with  thin,  light-colored  sapwood,  composed  of  5 
or  6  layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  employed  in  the  interior  finish 
of  houses  and  for  furniture.  The  inner  bark  possesses  mild  cathartic 
properties.  Sugar  is  made  from  the  sap  and  the  green  husks  of  the 
fruit  are  used  to  dye  cloth  yellow  or  orange  color. 


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BUTTEKNUT 


266  TREES  IN  WINTER 


BLACK  WALNUT 

Juglans  nigra  L. 


HABIT — A  large  tree,  50-75  ft.  hig-h  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  2-5  ft., 
reaching-  a  height  of  150  ft.  and  a  trunk  diameter  of  6-8  ft.  in  the  Ohio 
valley;  trunk  straight,  tapering,  giving  off  stout  branches,  those  below 
often  nearly  horizontal  or  declined,  those  above  arising  at  a  sharper 
angle,  spreading,  forming  an  open,  symmetrical,  round-topped  head. 

BARK — Thick,  dark,  rough,  deeply  furrowed  into  rounded  ridges; 
inner  bark  becoming  yellow  on  exposure  to  air. 

TWIGS — Stout,  densely  gray-downy  to  smooth  and  reddish-buff;  bitter 
to  taste  and  coloring  saliva  yellow  when  chewed.  LENTICELS — small, 
pale,  raised  dots,  rather  inconspicuous.  PITH — buff,  paler  than  that 
of  Butternut,  chambered,  the  open  chambers  several  times  wider  than 
the   intervening   diaphragms. 

IiEAF-SCARS — Large,  conspicuous,  elevated,  3-lobed.  inversely 
triangular  to  heart-shaped,  upper  margin  distinctly  notched,  enclosing 
the  axillary  bud;  no  downy  pad  above  leaf-scar.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 
dark,  conspicuous  in  3  U-shaped  clusters. 

BUDS — Pale,  silky  downy;  terminal  buds  ovate,  generally  under  10 
mm.  long  and  scarcely  longer  than  broad,  slightly  flattened,  obliquely 
blunt-pointed;  lateral  buds  smaller,  their  outer  scales  opening  at  apex 
during  winter,  frequently  a  single  superposed  accessory  bud  above 
axillary  bud.  BUDvSCALES — thick,  outer  scales  of  terminal  bud  gener- 
ally not  evidently  lobed. 

FRUIT — Round-oval,  4-10  cm.  in  diameter,  husk  smooth  not  regularly 
splitting.  NUT — dark  brown,  round-oval,  slightly  flattened,  sculptured 
with  interrupted,  irregular,  thick  ridges;  within  4-celled  below  the 
middle,    2-celled   above;    seed   sweet,    edible,   oily,    soon   becoming   rancid. 

COMPARISONS — The  Black  Walnut  is  most  closely  related  to  the 
Butternut  which  it  resembles  in  its  chambered  pith  and  the  general 
twig  appearance.  The  Butternut,  however,  has  terminal  buds  longer 
than  broad,  downy  pads  above  leaf-scars,  which  are  not  notched  as  are 
leaf-scars  of  the  Black  Walnut,  and  it  further  has  elongated  rather 
than  spherical  nuts.  The  pith  is  dark  brown  while  that  of  Black 
Walnut  is  pale  buff  and  the  chambers  are  not  much  wider  than  the 
diaphragms.  In  habit  it  is  a  lower,  more  spreading  tree  than  the 
Black  Walnut  and  the  light  gray  color  especially  of  the  flat  ridges  of 
the  bark  is  further  characteristic.  The  points  of  dissimilarity  to  the 
Bitternut  are  mentioned  under  this  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Rich  woods,  largely  destroyed  for  its  valuable  tim- 
ber and  now  scarce;  occasionally  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree  in 
the  eastern  United  States.  Massachusetts,  south  to  Florida;  west  to 
Minnesota,    Kansas,   Arkansas   and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — not  re- 
ported native;  Massachusetts — rare  east  of  the  Connecticut  river,  occa- 
sional along  the  western  part  of  the  Connecticut  valley  to  the  New 
York  line;  Connecticut — rare,  roadsides  and  rocky  hillsides  in  most 
localities  derived  from  planted  trees;  Norwich.  East  Hartford,  Newing- 
ton,  Southington.  Seymour  and  Southbury,  Trumbull  and  Easton;  prob- 
ably native  at  North  Canaan;  Rhode  Island — doubtfully  native,  Appon- 
aug,  and  elsewhere. 

"WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  coarse-grained,  very  durable, 
rich  dark  brown,  with  thin,  lighter  colored  sapwood  of  10-20  layers  of 
annual  growth;  largely  used  in  cabinet-making,  the  interior  finish  of 
houses,  gun-stocks,  and  in  boat  and  ship  building. 


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268  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


SHAG-BARK  HICKORY 

Shell-Bark  Hickory,  Walnut. 

Carya  ovata  (Mill.)  K.  Koch. 
C.  alba  Nutt. ;  Hickoria  ovata  Britton. 


HABIT — A  large  tree,  the  tallest  of  the  Hickories,  50-75  ft.  high, 
with  trunk  diameter  of  less  than  2  ft.;  in  the  forest  producing-  a  tall, 
straight  trunk  often  free  from  branches  for  50  ft.  or  more  surmounted 
by  a  narrow  head  of  few  limbs;  in  the  open  generally  forking  low 
down  or  below  the  middle  of  the  tree  into  stout  ascending  limbs 
forming  an  irregular  open  narrow  oblong  or  inversely  conical  round- 
topped   head. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  limbs  smooth,  light  gray,  becoming 
seamy;  on  old  trunks  shagging  characteristically  into  long  flat  plates 
which  are  free  at  the  base  or  both  ends. 

T'WIGS-^Stout,  somewhat  downy  or  smooth  and  shining,  reddish- 
brown  to  light  gray.  LENTICELS — numerous,  pale,  conspicuous,  longi- 
tudinally   elongated.     PITH — obscurely    5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked.  large,  conspicuous, 
pale,  slightly  elevated  3-lobed  heart-shaped  to  semi-circular.  STIPULE- 
SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous,  irregularly  scattered  or 
arranged  in  3  more  or  less  definite  circular  groups. 

BUDS — Large,  terminal  bud  10-20  mm.  long,  broadly  ovate,  rather 
blunt-pointed.  BUD-SCALES — the  3-4  outer  scales  dark  brown,  slightly 
downy  or  nearly  smooth,  fine-hairy  on  margins,  broadly  triangular, 
sharp-pointed,  the  outermost  keeled  and  often  with  apex  prolonged 
into  a  long,  rigid  point,  persistent  through  winter  but  cracking  and 
shagging  off  from  the  apex  downward;  inner  scales  yellowish-green, 
often  tinged  with  red,  densely  downy  on  outer  surface,  shining  within. 

FRUIT — Nearly  spherical,  3-5  cm.  long,  depressed  at  apex;  husk  5-8 
mm.  thick,  with  small  pale  lenticels,  splitting  to  the  base  into  four 
pieces.  NUT — whitish,  variable  in  size  and  shape,  generally  oblong, 
flattened,   4-ridged,  rounded  or  pointed  at   base  and   apex;   seed  sweet. 

COMPARISONS — The  Shag-bark  Hickory  is  distinguished  from  other 
trees  by  the  distinct  shagging  of  its  bark.  The  bark  especially  of  one 
variety  of  the  Pignut  shags  to  a  certain  extent  but  not  so  extensively. 
From  the  Pignut,  however,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  larger  buds,  and 
stouter  twigs.  From  the  Mockernut  it  is  distinguished  by  its  relatively 
longer  buds,  the  darker,  comparatively  smooth,  outer  scales  of  which 
remain  throughout  the  winter,  though  shagging  away  more  or  less 
completely  from  the  tip  toward  the  base. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  various  soils  and  situations,  fertile  slopes,  brook- 
sides,  rocky  hills.  Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence;  south  to  Delaware  and 
along  the  mountains  to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Oklahoma 
and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine,  along  or  near  the  coast  as  far  north  as 
Harpswell;  New  Hampshire — common  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winnepesau- 
kee;  Vermont — occasional  along  the  Connecticut  to  Windsor,  rather 
common  in  the  Champlain  valley  and  along  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Green  mountains;  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — com- 
mon. 

AVOOD — Heavy,  very  hard  and  strong,  tough,  close-grained,  flexible, 
light  brown  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood;  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  carriages,  wagons,  and  for  axe- 
handles,  baskets  and  fuel.  The  nut  is  the  common  hickory  nut  of 
commerce. 


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270  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

MOCKERNUT 
Big  Bud  Hickory,  White-heart  Hickory. 

Carya  alba  (L.)  K.  Koch. 
C.  tomentosa  Nutt. ;  Hickoria  alba  Britton. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  50-70  ft.  high  with  trunk  diameter  of  2-3  ft.; 
lower  branches  more  or  less  drooping;  those  above  ascending  at  a  sharp 
angle,  forming  a  narrow  oblong  or  broad  round-topped  head,  trunk 
somewhat  swollen  at  base. 

BARK — Light  to  dark  gray,  not  shaggy,  broken  by  irregular  inter* 
rupted  fissures  into  shallow  rounded  and  smooth-topped  ridges  which 
are  transversely  cracked  at  intervals;  the  smoothness  of  the  furrows 
and  of  the  rounded  ridges  together  with  the  grayness  of  the  bark  is 
quite  characteristic,  giving  an  appearance  as  if  the  roughness  of  the 
bark  had  been  sandpapered  down  or  as  if  a  thin  veil  had  been  drawn 
over  the  trunk. 

TWIGS — Very  stout,  generally  more  or  less  finely  downy,  reddish- 
brown  to  gray.  LENTICELS — numerous,  pale,  conspicuous,  longitudin- 
ally elongated.     PITH — obscurely   5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  similar  to  those  of 
Shag-bark  Hickory  but  rather  tending  to  be  more  distinctly  3-lobed  with 
basal  lobe  elongated. 

BUDS — Terminal  buds  pale,  densely  hairy,  broadly  ovate,  blunt  or 
sharp-pointed,  10-20  mm.  long,  outermost  scales  falling  in  early  autumn, 
exposing  the  yellowish-gray,  silky  inner  scales,  some  of  which  fall 
during  the  winter. 

FRUIT — Spherical  to  obovate,  4-C  cm.  long,  more  or  less  narrowed  at 
the  ends;  husk  3-4  mm.  thick,  splitting  to  middle  or  nearly  to  base. 
NUT — brown,  variable  in  size  and  shape,  spherical  to  oblong,  more  or 
less  flattened  and  angled  and  generally  pointed  at  both  ends;  shell  very 
tnick;    seed   comparatively   small,    sweet. 

COMPARISONS — The  Mockernut,  so  named  from  the  disappointingly 
small  kernel  obtained  from  the  relatively  large  nut,  is  distinguished 
by  its  large,  fat,  pale,  downy  buds,  which  do  not  retain  the  outer 
dark  scales  as  do  the  narrower  buds  of  the  Shag-bark  Hickory.  The 
peculiar  smoothness  of  the  ridges  and  furrows  of  the  gray  bark  is  also 
a  distinctive  characteristic. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  various  soils;  woods,  dry,  rocky  ridges,  mountain 
slopes.  Niagara  peninsula  and  westward;  south  to  Florida,  ascending 
3,500  feet  in  Virginia;  west  to  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Oklahoma, 
and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine  and  Vermont  not  reported; .  New  Hamp- 
shire— sparingly  along  the  coast;  Massachusetts — rather  common  east- 
ward;   Connecticut — occasional    or    frequent;    Rhode    Island — common. 

WOOD — Very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  strong,  close-grained,  flexible,  rich 
dark  brown,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood;  used  for  the  same 
purpose  as  that  of  the  Shag-bark  Hickory. 


1 


MOCKERNUT 


272  TKEES  IN  WINTER 

PIGNUT 
Pignut  or  Broom  Hickory. 

Carya  glabra  (Mill.)  Spach. 
C.  porcina  Nutt. ;  Hickoria  glabra  Britton. 


HABIT — A  good  sized  tree,  50-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  2-5  feet.;  branches  slender,  more  or  less  contorted,  the  lower  ones 
especially  usually  strongly  pendulous,  forming  a  narrow  oblong  head, 
well  shown  in  the  tree  photographed,  or  broader  in  other  specimens. 

BARIv — Dark  gray,  fissured  into  irregular  diamond-shaped  areas 
somewhat  suggesting  bark  of  White  Ash,  but  narrow  ridges  flattened, 
tough,  tending  to  become  detached  at  ends;  sometimes  somewhat  shaggy 
especially  in  one  of  the  varieties  mentioned  below,  which  has  a  bark 
approaching   that   of   the    Shag-bark   Hickory. 

TVA'IGS — Comparatively  slender  for  the  genus,  smooth,  reddish-brown 
to  gray.  LENTICELS — numerous,  longitudinally  elongated,  more  or 
less    conspicuous.      PITH — obscurely    5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

liEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  obscurely  3-lobed, 
heart-shaped  to  semi-circular  or  oblong.  BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous, 
irregularly  scattered  or  collected  in  3  more  or  less  definite  groups. 

BUDS — Reddish-brown  to  gray,  small,  terminal  bud  under  10  mm. 
long,  oval,  blunt  or  sharp-pointed,  becoming  subglobose  toward  spring. 
BUD-SCALES — outer  scales  dark,  smooth  or  finely  downy,  generally 
slightly  yellow  glandular-dotted,  more  or  less  keeled,  and  sometimes 
long-pointed,  often  falling  before  the  end  of  winter  and  exposing  the 
pale-silky  inner  scales. 

FRUIT — Pear-shaped  to  oblong  to  nearly  spherical,  3-5  cm.  long;  very 
variable  in  size  and  shape;  husk  under  2  mm.  thick,  in  some  forms 
splitting  only  at  the  apex  and  enclosing  the  nut  after  it  has  fallen 
to  the  ground,  in  other  forms  splitting  to  the  iniddle  or  to  the  base. 
NUT — Lhick  or  rather  thin  shelled,  generally  not  ridged  nor  sharp- 
pointed;  seed  sweet  or  sometimes   bitter. 

COMPARISOIVS — The  Pignut  is  a  very  variable  species  and  there  are 
several  varieties  described,  some  of  which  have  been  recognized  as 
distinct  species,  as  for  instance  Carya  microcarpa  Nutt., — the  Small- 
fruited  Hickory — which  is  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous.  It  has  a 
somewhat  shaggy  bark  and  a  nearly  spherical  fruit  with  the  husk 
splitting  to  the  base.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  whole  spe- 
cies is  the  small  size  of  the  buds,  which  before  the  outer  dark  scales 
drop  off  resemble  buds  of  the  Shag-bark  Hickory  except  for  size,  and 
after  these  outer  scales  have  been  shed  may  be  compared  with  minia- 
ture Mockernut  buds.  Its  bark  is  not  smoothed  off  like  that  of  the 
Mockernut  nor  except  in  extreme  cases  shaggy  like  that  of  the  Shag- 
bark. 

DISTRIBUTION — "Woods,  dry  hills  and  uplands.  Niagara  pensinsula 
and  along  Lake  Erie;  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  west  to  Minnesota, 
Nebraska,    Kansas,   Oklahoma,    and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND— Maine — frequent  in  the  southern  corner  of 
York  county;  New  Hampshire — common  toward  the  coast  and  along  the 
lower  Merrimac  valley;  abundant  on  hills  near  the  Connecticut  river, 
but  only  occasional  above  Bellows  Falls;  Vermont — Marsh  Hill,  Ferris- 
burgh,  W.  Castleton  and  Pownal;  Massachusetts — common  eastward; 
along  the  Connecticut  river  valley  and  some  of  the  tributary  valleys, 
more  common  than  the  Shag-bark;  Connecticut — occasional  or  frequent; 
Rhode  Island — common. 

"WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  very  strong  and  tough,  flexible,  light  or  dark 
brown,  with  thick,  lighter  colored  or  often  nearly  white  sapwood;  used 
for  the  handles  of  tools  and  in  the  manufacture  of  wagons  and  agri- 
cultural implements,  and  largely  for  fuel. 


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274  TREES  IN  WINTER 


BITTERNUT 

Swamp  Hickory. 

Carya  cordiformis  (Wang.)  K.  Koch. 

C.  amara  Nutt.  ;  Hickoria  minima  (Marsh.)  Britton. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  50-75  ft.  in  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
1-21^  ft.;  trunk  generally  early  developing-  several  stout  ascending 
and  somewhat  diverging  branches  to  form  a  broad  spreading  head 
generally  widest  toward  the  top. 

BARK — Thin,  light  gray,  close,  with  shallow  fissures  and  narrow 
ridges  rarely  flaking  off  in  small,  thin  scales. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  buff  or  gray  or  reddish,  smooth  or  slightly  downy 
toward  apex,  generally  yellow-glandular  above.  LENTICELS — more  or 
less  distinct,  pale,  numerous,  longitudinally  elongated.  PITH — infre- 
quently star-shaped,   brown. 

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  obscurely  3-lobed, 
heart-shaped,  inversely  triangular  to  eliptical,  pale,  raised,  large, 
prominent,  the  upper  margin  generally  rounded,  convex  to  sharp- 
pointed,  often  2-toothed  at  apex.  BUNDLE-SCARS — prominent,  irreg- 
larly  scattered  or  collected  into  3  more  or  less  regular  groups  or 
sometimes  apparently  in  single  curved  line. 

BUDS — Slender,  strikingly  yellow  with  crowded  glandular  dots, 
slightly  hairy  between  the  scales;  terminal  bud  5-15  mm.  long,  flattened, 
obliquely  blunt-pointed;  lateral  buds  more  or  less  4-angled,  the  axillary 
bud  generally  minute  with  one  or  more  larger  superposed  buds  above 
it,  often  considerably  separated  from  each  other,  the  uppermost  of  the 
series  stalked  or  developing  into  a  twig  the  first  season.  BUD- 
SCALES — 4,  valvate  in  pairs. 

FRUIT — Nearly  spherical  to  pear-shaped,  2-3.5  cm.  long,  generally 
4-winged  from  the  apex  to  about  the  middle,  husk  about  1  mm. 
thick,  yellow  glandular-dotted,  tardily  splitting  to  about  the  middle 
into  4  valves.  NUT — usually  thin-shelled,  sometimes  broader  than 
long,  smooth,  short-pointed;  seed  deeply  and  irregularly  roughened, 
sweetish  at  first,  becoming  intensely  bitter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Bitternut  will  not  be  confused  with  any  other 
tree  if  due  notice  is  taken  of  the  narrow  bright  yellow,  glandular- 
dotted  often  superposed  buds.  The  Butternut  has  superposed  buds  but 
they  are  pale  greenish-yellow  and  very  downy,  not  bright  yellow  nor 
glandular  dotted  and  the  pith  though  similarly  brown  is  distinctly 
chambered. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  varying  soils  and  situations;  wet  woods,  low, 
damp  fields,  river  valleys,  along  roadsides,  occasional  upon  uplands 
and  hill  slopes.  From  Montreal  west  to  Georgian  bay;  south  to  Florida, 
ascending  3,500  feet  in  Virginia;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,    and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — southward,  rare;  New  Hampshire — 
eastern  limit  in  the  Connecticut  valley,  where  it  ranges  farther  north 
than  any  other  of  our  Hickories,  reaching  Well's  river;  Vermont- 
occasional  west  of  the  Green  mountains  and  in  the  southern  Connecti- 
cut valley;  Massachusetts — rather  common,  abundant  in  the  vicinity 
of   Boston;    Connecticut — occasional;   Rhode   Island — common. 

XVOOD — Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  tough,  close-grained,  dark  brown, 
with  thick  light  brown  or  often  nearly  white  sapwood;  largely  used 
for  hoops  and  ox-yokes  and  for  fuel. 


BiTTERNUT 


276  TKEES  IN"  WINTER 


HOP  HORNBEAM 
Ironwood,   Leverwood,   Deerwood. 

Ostrya  virginiana  (Mill.)  K.  Koch. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  25-40  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
generally  less  than  1  ft.;  branches  long-,  slender,  those  below  widely 
spreading  and  often  drooping  but  with  branchlets  tending  upward 
forming  an  irregular  oblong  or  broadly  ovate  head  often  as  broad  ac 
.all,    with    slender    stiff    spray. 

BARK — Thin,  flaky,  light  grayish-brown  broken  into  narrow  flattish 
pieces,  loose  at  the  ends. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  1-2  mm.  in  thickness,  dark,  reddish-brown,  often 
zigzag,  for  the  most  part  smooth  and  shining.  LENTICELS — scattered, 
pale. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  minute,  1.75  mm.  or  less  in 
diameter,  flattened,  elliptical,  projecting.  STIPULE-SCARS — triangular, 
rather  inconspicuous.  BUNDLE-SCARS — generally  3,  inconspicuous;  if 
scar  is  surface-sectioned,   5  bundle-scars  are  evident. 

BUDS — Small,  3-7  mm.  long,  narrowly  ovate,  pointed,  light  reddish- 
brown,  smooth  or  somewhat  finely  downy,  slightly  gummy  especially 
within,  generally  strongly  divergent;  terminal  bud  absent.  BUD-SCALES 
— in  4  ranks,  about  8  scales  visible,  increasing  in  size  from  below 
upwards,  longitudinally  striate  if  viewed  toward  light. 

FRUIT — A  small  seed-like  nutlet,  enclosed  in  an  inflated  sac-like 
veiny  bract,  long-hairy  at  base;  the  fruits  aggregated  together  in  a 
hop-like  cluster  about  7  cm.  long,  with  stalks  often  hairy,  generally 
falling  before  winter.  Young  staminate  catkins  abundantly  present, 
cylindrical,   usually  in   3's,   their  scales   bristle-pointed. 

COMPARISONS — The  Hop  Hornbeam  from  its  general  appearance  and 
bark  character  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  a  young  Elm.  The  scales  of 
the  bark,  however,  are  narrower  and  more  flaky;  the  leaf-scars  are 
smaller  and  the  bundle-scars  are  not  sunken,  the  bud-scales  are  in  4 
ranks  and  the  staminate  flowers  are  borne  in  catkins  which  are  gener- 
ally present  on  the  tree  in  winter.  For  differences  between  the  Hop 
Hornbeam  and  the  American  Hornbeam,  see  under  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  rather  open  woods  and  along  highlands.  Novi, 
Scotia  to  Lake  Superior,  scattered  throughout  the  whole  country  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  ranging  through  western  Minnesota  to  Nebraska, 
Kansas,   Oklahoma,   and   Texas. 

IN   NEW   ENGLAND — common    in   all    parts. 

WOOD — Strong,  hard,  tough,  durable,  light  brown  and  tinged  with 
red  or  often  nearly  white,  with  thick  pale  sapwood  of  40-50  layers  of 
annual  growth,  used  for  fence  posts,  levers,  handles  of  tools,  mallets  and 
other  small   articles. 


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Hop  Hornbeam 


278  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


AMERICAN  HORNBEAM 
Hornbeam,  Blue  Beech,  Ironwood,  Water  Beech. 

Carpinus  caroliniana  Walt. 


HABIT — A  low  tree  or  shrub  10-30  ft.  high  with  a  trunk  diameter 
generally  under  1  ft.;  with  long,  slender,  tough,  more  or  less  zigzag 
branches  not  easily  broken,  which  are  somewhat  pendulous  at  ends 
forming  a  bushy  wide  spreading,  flat  or  round-topped  head;  the  trunk 
is  frequently  zigzag  above  giving  appearance  of  being  forked  with 
broad,   rounded   crotches. 

BARK — Smooth,  thin,  dark  bluish-gray,  close-fitting,  sinewy-fluted 
with  smooth,  rounded,  longitudinal  ridges.  The  smooth  ridges  of  the 
bark  are  very  characteristic  and  may  be  compared  Ho  the  appearance 
of  the  wrist  which  becomes  similarly  ridged  by  the  protrusion  of  the 
sinews   when  the   hand   is   clenched. 

TWIGS — Slender,  about  1  mm.  thick  or  less  toward  apex,  dark  red, 
and  shining,  smooth,  or  often  somewhat  hairy.  LENTICLES — scattered, 
pale,    generally    conspicuous. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  minute,  flattened,  eliptical, 
projecting.  STIPULE-SCARS — narrow,  triangular,  rather  inconspicuous. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — generally  3,  inconspicuous,  up  to  5  visible  when 
surface- sectioned. 

BUDS — Small,  usually  2-4  mm.  long,  narrowly  ovate  to  oblong,  point- 
ed, reddish-brown,  more  or  less  hairly  especially  the  buds  containing 
staminate  catkins  which  are  larger  and  oval  to  obovate;  leaf  buds 
more  or  less  appressed,  or  only  slightly  divergent,  terminal  bud  absent. 
BUD-SCALES — in  4  ranks  about  8-12  scales  visible,  increasing  in  size 
from  below  upward,  white-scarious  and  often  downy  on  edges,  fre- 
quently with  a  woolly  patch  of  down  on  tip;  longitudinally  striate  when 
viewed  toward  light. 

FRUIT — A  small  ribbed  seed-like  nutlet,  enclosed  by  a  veiny  generally 
3-lobed  bract  about  2.5  cm,  long,  which  is  saw-toothed  on  one  side  of 
larger  lobe  and  often  has  one  of  lower  lobes  lacking,  usually  falling 
before  winter.  Staminate  catkins  entirely  enclosed  in  the  larger  buds 
therefore  not  visible  during  winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  American  Hornbeam  is  often  confused  with  the 
Hop  Hornbeam  perhaps  chiefly  from  their  unfortunate  similarity  in 
common  names.  The  smooth,  close,  bluish-gray  bark  together  with 
the  habitat  in  which  it  grows  has  given  it  the  name  of  Water  Beech. 
The  sinewy-fluting  to  the  bark  is  unique  among  our  trees  and  readily 
distinguishes  the  American  Hornbeam  from  the  Hop  Hornbeam,  the 
bark  of  which  is  flaky  in  narrow  scales.  Further  the  American  Horn- 
beam never  shows  any  catkins  in  winter  while  they  are  generally 
abundant  on  the  Hop  Hornbeam;  the  buds  of  the  American  Hornbeam 
are  smaller,  and  have  whitish  down  on  the  edges;  those  of  the  Hop 
Hornbeam  are  for  the  most  part  smooth  and  slightly  gummy.  The 
Beech  which  the  American  Hornbeam  resembles  in  its  bark  has  much 
larger  and  relatively  longer  buds. 

DISTRIBUTION — Low,  wet  woods  and  margins  of  swamps.  Province 
of  Quebec  to  Georgian  bay;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota, 
Nebraska,   Kansas,   Oklahoma,   and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Rather  common  throughout,  less  frequent 
towal'ds  the  coast. 

WOOD — Light  brown  with  thick,  nearly  white  sapwood,  sometimes 
used  for  levers,  the  handles  of  tools  and  other  small  articles. 


American  Hornbeam 


280  TKEES  IN  WINTER 


BLACK  BIRCH 

Cherry  Birch;  Sweet  Birch. 

Betula  lenta  L. 


HABIT — A  medium  to  large  sized  tree,  50-75  ft.  high,  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  1-4  ft.;  branches  long-  and  slender,  in  young  specimens 
upper  branches  ascending  at  sharp  angle,  lower  branches  horizontal 
or  drooping  with  delicate  spray  forming  a  narrow  head;  in  older 
trees   becoming   wide   spreading,   ovate   in   outline. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  close,  not  peeling, 
dark  reddish-brown,  shining,  with  horizontally  elongated  pale  lenticels 
resembling  the  bark  of  the  cultivated  Cherry  whence  the  common 
name;  in  older  trunks  tardily  broken  into  large  thick  irregular  plates; 
inner  bark  with  distinct  wintergreen  taste. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  light  reddish-brown,  smooth,  shining,  with  strong 
wintergreen  flavor  when  chewed;  short  spur-like  lateral  shoots  abund- 
ant, bearing  two  leaves  each  season,  much  roughened  by  leaf-scars  of 
numerous  past  seasons.  LENTICELS — pale,  raised  dots,  becoming 
horizontally  elongated  with  age.     PITH — elliptical. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Akernate,  2-ranked,  small,  semi-oval  to  depressed 
inversely  triangular  to  crescent-shaped,  projecting.  STIPULE-SCARS — 
present,  narrow,  inconspicuous.  BUNDLE-SCARS — generally  3  and 
inconspicuous. 

BUDS — Medium,  5-10  mm.  long,  conical,  sharp-pointed,  reddish-brown, 
divergent;  terminal  bud  absent  on  long  shoots;  buds  on  short  spurs 
terminal.  BUD-SCALES — downy  on  margins,  overlapping  with  more  than 
2  ranks;  in  buds  of  long  shoots  3  scales  visible,  two  lateral  of 
equal  size  reaching  half  way  up  and  a  third  with  edges  rolled  around 
the  bud;  scales  of  terminal  buds  on  short  spurs  more  numerous,  about 
7  visible. 

FRUIT — An  erect,  stalkless,  oval-oblong  catkin,  2-4  cm.  long,  with 
smooth  scales  about  4-6  mm.  long,  equally  3-lobed  above  the  middle 
and   with   seed-like   winged   nutlets   about   as   broad  as   their   wings. 

COMPARISOXS— The    Black    Birch    differs    from    other    Birches    in    its 

close  dark  Cherry-like  bark.  It  is  most  closely  related  to  the  Yellow 
Birch  in  the  character  of  its  fruit  and  the  aromatic  flavor  of  the  young 
bark.  Besides  the  bark  differences,  however,  the  twigs  of  the  Black 
Birch  have  a  more  decided  wintergreen  flavor.  It  has  in  general  a 
somewhat  less  spreading  habit  of  growth,  the  buds  are  divergent  and 
the  catkins  are  not  downy. 

DISTRIBUTION — Moist  grounds;  rich  woods,  old  pastures,  fertile 
hill  slopes,  banks  of  rivers.  Maine;  south  to  Delaware,  along  the  moun- 
tains to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Kansas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — frequent;  New  Hampshire — in  the  high- 
lands of  the  southern  section,  and  along  the  Connecticut  river  valley 
to  a  short  distasce  north  of  Windsor;  Vermont — frequent  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state,  and  in  the  southern  Connecticut  valley; 
Connecticut — widely  distributed,  especially  in  the  Connecticut  river  val- 
ley, frequent  or  common;  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island — frequent 
throughout,   especially   in   the   highlands,    less   often   near  the   coast. 

AVOOD — Heavy,  very  strong  and  hard,  close-grained,  dark  brown 
tinged  with  red,  with  thin  light  brown  or  yellow  sapwood  of  70-80 
layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture 
and  for  fuel  and  occasionally  in  ship  and  boat  building.  Oil  of  winter- 
green, used  medicinally  and  as  a  flavor,  is  distilled  from  the  wood,  and 
beer  is  obtained  by  fermenting  the  sugary  sap. 


Black  Birch 


282  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

YELLOW  BIRCH 
Silver  or  Gray  Birch. 

Betula  lutea  Michx.  f. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  60-90  ft.  in  height,  with  trunk  diameter  of 
2-4  ft.,  reaching  its  largest  size  in  northern  New  England;  in  the  open 
branching  low  down  with  long  slender  wide  spreading  somewhat 
pendulous  branches  forming  a  broadly  ovate  to  hemispherical  head. 
Older  tree^  than  the  one  photographed  generally  show  a  broader  outline 
twith  the  trunk  less   conspicuously  continuous  into   the  head. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  close,  bright,  silvery-yellow- 
ish gray,  generally  at  length  peeling  into  thin  ribbon-like  layers  which 
roll  back  and  extend  up  the  trunk  in  long  lines  of  ragged  fringe.  There 
is  considerable  variation  in  the  amount  of  peeling  of  the  outer  bark.  A 
well  marked  condition  of  peeling  is  shown  in  the  bark  photographed; 
the  bark  of  the  tree  used  for  the  habit  showed  scarcely  any  peeling.  On 
older  trunks  especially  toward  the  base  the  silvery  bark  is  entirely 
shed  and  the  bark  below  shows  reddish-brown  and  becomes  rough  and 
fissured  into  irregular  plate-like  scales. 

TWIGS — Slender,  light  yellowish-brown,  becoming  darker,  smooth  or 
somewhat  hairy;  with  only  slight  wintergreen  flavor  when  chewed; 
short  spur-like  lateral  branches  abundant,  similar  to  those  of  Black 
Birch.  LENTICELS — pale,  raised  dots,  inconspicuous,  becoming  horizon- 
tally elongated  with  age. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,   2-ranked,  similar  to  those  of  Black   Birch, 

BUDS — Similar  to  those  of  Black  Birch,  more  or  less  appressed. 
BUD-SCALES — more   or   less   downy. 

FRUIT — An  erect,  stalkless  or  short-stalked  downy  catkin,  ovate  to 
oblong,  2-4  cm.  long  and  about  2  mm.  wide  and  relatively  wider  than 
fruit  of  Black  Birch;  scales  downy  on  the  back  and  edges,  8-10  mm. 
long,  longer  than  broad,  nearly  equally  3-lobed  to  the  middle;  with 
seed-like  winged  nutlets  about  as  broad  as  their  wings. 

COMPARISONS — The  Yellow  Birch  differs  from  the  Black  Birch  as 
indicated  in  Comparisons  under  the  latter  species.  In  the  peeling  of  the 
outer  bark  it  resembles  the  Paper  and  the  Red  Birch.  Its  outer  bark, 
however,  is  a  dingy  yellow  and  not  a  chalky  white  as  is  that  of  the 
exposed  layers  of  the  Paper  Birch;  moreover,  in  peeling,  the  thin  layers 
tend  to  curl  back  to  form  longitudinal  lines  of  ragged  fringe.  The 
fringes  of  bark  are  larger  and  more  ragged  than  in  the  Red  Birch 
but  the  color  alone  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  two  forms. 

DISTRIBUTION — Low,  rich  woodlands,  mountain  slopes.  Newfound- 
land and  Nova  Scotia  to  Rainy  river;  south  to  the  middle  states,  and 
along  the  mountains  to  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina;  west  to  Minne- 
sota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Abundant  northward;  common  throughout,  from 
borders  of  lowland  swamps  to  1,000  feet  above  the  sea  level;  more 
common  at  considerable  altitudes,  where  it  often  occurs  in  extensive 
patches  or  belts. 

W^OOD — Heavy,  very  strong,  hard,  close-grained,  light  brown  tinged 
with  red,  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood;  largely  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture,  button  and  tassel  moulds,  boxes,  the  hubs  of  wheels 
and  for  fuel. 


Yellow  Birch 


284  TREES  IN  WINTER 


RED  BIRCH 
River  Birch. 

Betula  nigra  L. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree,  30-50  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  l-l^^  ft.,  much  larger  southward;  trunk  often  divided 
relatively  low  down  as  shown  in  photographs  into  a  few  slightly 
spreading  limbs  beset  with  numerous  slender  more  or  less  pendulous 
branchlets,  forming  a  rather  narrow  oblong  head,  becoming  irregular 
and  broader  with  age. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches,  thin,  shining,  light  reddish- 
brown,  peeling  freely  into  thin  papery  layers  of  various  shades  of 
red  and  brown  which  curl  back  and  remain  for  several  years  as 
ragged  fringes  and  show  the  light  pinkish  tints  of  the  freshly  exposed 
inner  layers;  at  base  of  older  trunks,  dark  reddish-brown,  deeply 
furrowed  and  broken  into  thick  irregular  plate-like  scales. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  dark  red,  for  the  most  part  smooth.  LENTICELS — 
pale,    becoming   horizontally    elongated. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,    2-ranked. 

BUDS — Small,  about  6  mm.  long,  shining,  light  chestnut  brown 
smooth  or  more  or  less  hairy,   ovate,  pointed,   more  or  less  appressed. 

FRUIT — Ripening  in  late  spring  or  summer,  a  stalked,  downy,  cylin- 
drical, erect  catkin,  2-5  cm.  long;  scales  downy,  with  3  narrow 
lobes,   seed-like   nutlet   about  as   wide   as  the  downy   margined   wings. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Birch  resembles  the  Yellow  Birch  in  the 
more  or  less  persistent  ragged  fringes  of  papery  layers  into  which  the 
outer  bark  peels.  Its  bark,  however,  is  dark  reddish  to  light  cinnamon 
color,  and  is  rather  less  ragged  in  peeling  than  that  of  the  Yellow  Birch 
w^hich,  moreover,  is  of  a  dirty  yellowish  color.'  The  Black  Birch  with 
its  dark  bark  and  the  white  barked  species  cannot  be  confused  with 
the  tree  under  discussion.  This  tree  is  rare  and  local  in  New  England 
and  except  as  planted  for  ornament  is  found  along  river  banks. 

DISTRIBUTION — Along  rivers,  ponds  and  woodlands  inundated  a 
part  of  the  year.  Doubtfully  and  indefinitely  reported  from  Canada; 
south,  east  of  the  Alleghany  mountains,  to  Florida;  west,  locally 
through  the  northern  tier  of  states  to  Minnesota  and  along  the  Gulf 
states  to  Texas;  western  limits,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Not  reported  in  Maine,  Vermont,  Rhode  Island  or 
Connecticut;  New  Hampshire — found  sparingly  along  streams  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state;  abundant  along  the  banks  of  Beaver  Brook, 
Pelham;  Massachusetts — along  the  Merrimac  river  and  its  tributaries, 
bordering  swamps  in  Methuen  and  ponds  in  North  Andover. 

W^OOD — Light,  rather  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  light  brown  with 
pale  sapwood  of  40-50  layers  of  annual  growth;  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  furniture,   wooden  ware,  wooden  shoes  and  in  turnery. 


Ked  Birch 


286  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


GRAY  BIRCH 

Old-field,  White,  Poverty,  Small  White  or  Poplar  Birch. 
Betula  populifolia  Marsh. 


HADIT — A  small  short-lived  tree,  20-35  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  generally  less  than  1  ft.,  commonly  growing  in  clumps; 
trunk  slender,  generally  inclined  to  one  side,  continuous  into  top  of  tree, 
with  a  fringe  from  top  to  bottom  of  short  slender  branches  which  grow 
upward  for  a  short  distance  but  soon  bend  downward,  with  delicate 
spray,  forming  a  narrow,  open,  pyramidal,  pointed  head. 

BARK — Dull  chalky-white,  close,  not  peeling,  with  distinct  dark 
triangular  patches  below  insertion  of  branches;  inner  bark  reddish- 
orange  yellow;  base  of  older  trees  nearly  black  and  roughened  by 
irregular  fissures;  young  trunks  and  branches  bright  reddish-brown. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  bright  reddish-brown  or  grayish,  becoming  with  age 
dull  chalky-white,  much  roughened  by  warty  resinous  exudations. 
LENTICELS — pale,  raised  dots  becoming  with  age  conspicuous  and  hori- 
zontally elongated. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  with  characters  of  the 
genus. 

BUDS — Small,  about  5  mm.  or  generally  less  in  length,  smooth,  some- 
what resinous  especially  within,  ovate,  pointed,  divergent.  BUD- 
SCALES — finely  downy  on  margins,   3-4  visible. 

FRUIT — An  erect  or  pendant,  slender-stalked,  narrow-cylindrical  cat- 
kin, 1.5  to  3.5  cm.  long;  scales  minute  2-4  mm.  long,  finely  downy  with 
broad  lateral  recurved  lobes,  and  narrow  middle  lobe  suggesting  the 
silhouette  of  a  soaring  bird;  seed-like  nutlet,  minute,  narrower  than 
the   wings.     Staminate  catkin  usually   solitary. 

COMPARISONS — The  Gray  Birch  resembles  the  Paper  Birch  in  having 
a  whitish  outer  bark.  The  bark,  however,  is  a  dingier  gray  and  does 
not  peel  into  thin  papery  layers  as  does  that  of  the  Paper  Birch.  A 
close  inspection  of  its  bark  sometimes  may  show  a  certain  breaking 
away  of  the  outer  part  in  minute  inconspicuous  scales,  but  this  is  not 
to  be  confused  with  a  natural  peeling.  The  bark,  moreover,  cannot  be 
separated  into  thin  papery  layers..  The  slender  twigs  are  generally 
conspicuously  roughened  with  resinous  dots  while  those  .of  the  twigs 
of  the  Paper  Birch  are  in  general  not  so  roughened  except  slightly 
in  certain  varieties.  The  Gray  Birch  is  less  inclined  to  produce  large 
limbs  and  the  numerous  small  branches  are  rather  strongly  pendant 
after  leaving  the  trunk.  The  species  is  short  lived,  never  forming  a 
large  tree,  and  is  most  frequently  met  with  as  a  waste-land  tree. 

DISTRIBUTION — Dry,  gravelly  soils,  occasional  in  swamps  and  fre- 
quent along  their  borders,  often  springing  up  on  burnt  lands  and  usually 
the  first  tree  to  take  possession  of  abandoned  or  neglected  fields;  often 
difl!icult  to  eradicate  as  it  sprouts  readily  from  the  cut  stump.  Nova 
Scotia  to  Lake  Ontario;  south,  mostly  in  the  coast  region,  to  Delaware; 
west  to  Lake  Ontario. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant;  New  Hampshire — abundant 
eastward,  as  far  north  as  Conway  and  along  the  Connecticut  to  West- 
moreland; Vermont — common  in  the  western  and  frequent  in  the  south- 
ern Sections;  Massachusetts,   Connecticut   and  Rhode   Island — common. 

"WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close-grained,  not  durable,  light 
brown  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood;  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
spools,  shoe  pegs  and  wood  pulp,  for  the  hoops  of  barrels  and  largely 
for  fuel. 


^A'^-i. 


Gray  Birch 


288  TREES  IN  WINTER 


PAPER  BIRCH 

Canoe  or  White  Birch. 

Betula  alba,  var.  papyrifera  (Marsh.)  Spach. 
B.  papyrifera  Marsh, 


HABIT — A  large  tree,  50-75  ft.  or  occasionally  more  in  height  with 
a  trunk  diameter  of  1-3  ft.;  developing  when  not  crowded  an  open, 
irregular,  rounded  head,  with  numerous  branches  and  erect  branchlets. 

BARK — Trunk  and  older  branches  chalky-white,  peeling  or  easily 
separated  into  thin  paper-like  layers  of  a  delicate  pinkish  to  yellowish 
tinge  where  not  exposed  to  the  sun,  with  conspicuous  horizontally 
elongated,  raised  lenticels;  inner  bark  reddish-orange  yellow.  With  age 
the  outer  bark  rolls  back  in  ragged  sheets  and  the  trunk  becomes  more 
or  less  black-streaked  and  blotched  and  the  base  rough  and  fissured 
into  large  irregular  thick  scales.  The  bark  of  the  Paper  Birch  is  much 
sought  after  by  visitors  in  the  woods  for  use  as  letter  paper,  small 
picture  frames  and  other  souvenir  articles.  In  consequence  trees  of 
this  species  in  the  neighborhood  of  picnic  grounds  generally  are 
despoiled  of  their  bark  and  even  its  close-barked  relative,  the  Gray 
Birch,  is  not  immune  from  attacks  of  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the 
difference  in  bark  characters  between  the  two  species. 

TAVIGS — Stouter  than  those  of  the  Gray  Birch;  smooth  or  somewhat 
hairy,  reddish-brown.  LENTICELS — pale,  orange  colored  dots  becoming 
horizontally  elongated.  LEAF-SCARS — 2-ranked,  resembling  those  of 
the    Gray   Birch. 

BUDS — About  5-10  mm.  long,  ovate,  pointed,  divergent.  BUD-SCALES 
— downy  on  margins. 

FRUIT — A  short-stalked,  cylindrical,  smooth  catkin  2-5  cm.  long; 
scales  4-6  mm.  long,  with  thick  lateral  lobes,  hairy-margined;  seed- 
like nutlet,  narrower  than  the  wings;  staminate  catkins  in  2's  or  usually 
in  3's. 

COMPARISONS — The  Paper  Birch,  as  known  to  woodsmen,  is  distin- 
guished by  its  chalky-white  bark  peeling  into  thin  papery  layers.  A 
number  of  botanically  more  or  less  distinct  separate  varieties  and 
species  have  been  recognized  but  Betula  alba,  var.  papyrifera  is  the  most 
common.  The  peeling  of  its  bark  distinguishes  it  from  the  Gray  Birch. 
The  exposed  outer  bark  is  more  distinctly  white  and  the  dark  triangular 
patches  noticeable  at  the  insertion  of  branches  in  the  Gray  Birch  are 
often  absent,  especially  on  older  trunks,  or  less  distinct.  The  bark 
does  not  typically  form  the  ragged  fringe  characteristic  of  the  Yellow 
Birch  and  while  it  may  not  show  the  characteristic  chalky-white  where 
it  has  peeled,  the  color  is  not  a  dingy  yellow  but  some  delicate  shade, 
generally  of  cinnamon. 

DISTRIBUTION — Deep,  rich  woods,  river  banks,  mountain  slopes. 
Canada,  Atlantic  to  Pacific,  northward  to  Labrador  and  Alaska  to  the 
limit  of  deciduous  trees;  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Illinois;  west  to  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  Washington  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant;  New  Hampshire — in  all  sec- 
tio^^s,  most  common  on  highlands  up  to  the  alpine  area  of  the  White 
Mountains,  above  the  range  of  the  Yellow  Birch;  Vermont — common; 
Massachusetts — common  in  the  western  and  central  sections,  rare 
towards  the  coast;  Connecticut — rare  near  the  coast,  Lyme,  Huntington, 
becoming  occasional  northward  and  frequent  in  Litchfield  county; 
Rhode  Island — not  reported. 

WOOD — Light,  strong,  hard,  tough,  very  close-grained,  light  brown, 
tinged  with  red,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood;  largely  used  for 
spools,  shoe-lasts,  pegs  and  in  turnery,  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp 
and  for  fuel.  The  tough  resinous  durable  bark  impervious  to  water  is 
used  by  all  the  northern  Indians  in  their  canoes,  and  for  baskets, 
bags,  drinking  cups  and  other  small  articles,  and  often  to  cover  their 
wigwams  in  winter. 


Paper  Bincir 


290  TREES  IN  WINTER 


EUROPEAN  WHITE  BIRCH 
European  Paper  Birch. 

Betula  alba  L. 


The  European  Birch  of  which  our  American  Paper  Birch  is  considered 
a  variety  is  closely  related  to  this  latter  species.  There  are  many 
horticultural  varieties.  Aside  from  the  weeping  variety  the  forms  most 
frequently  seen  in  cultivation  are  erect  with  fine  drooping  spray.  The 
bark  is  often  slashed  at  the  base  of  the  trunk  with  deep  "gussef-like 
furrows  exposing-  the  inner  bark  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  whiteness 
of  the  outer  layers.  The  outer  bark  is  separable  into  thin  papery  layers 
but  does  not  seem  inclined  to  peel  spontaneously  as  our  native  Paper 
Birch. 


EuROPEAisr  White  Birch 


292  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


SPECKLED  ALDER 
Hoary  Alder,  Alder. 

Alnus  incana  (L.)  Moench. 


HABIT — A  small  tree,  or  more  frequently  a  shrub  8-25  ft.  high  with 
a  trunk  diameter  generally  under  5  inches;  generally  growing  in 
clumps  of  several  stems. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  smooth,  with  prominent  whitish  lenticels 
somewhat  elongated  horizontally. 

TW^IGS — Rather  slender,  more  or  less  zigzag,  finely  downy,  grayish- 
brown,  becoming  hoary-white  toward  the  tips  especially  of  fruiting 
twigs.  LENTICELS — scattered,  whitish,  conspicuous.  PITH — dark  green, 
3-cornered. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  or  sometimes  apparently  more 
than  2-ranked,  conspicuous,  inversely  triangular,  raised,  light  yellowish- 
brown.  STIPULE-«CARS— narrow,  triangular.  BUNDLE-SCARS— 3, 
often  compounded. 

BUDS — Distinctly  stalked,  about  8  mm.  long,  reddish,  more  or  less 
whitened  with  fine  down,  slightly  sticky  within;  terminal  buds  scarcely 
larger  than  laterals.  BUD-SCALES — 3  scales  visible,  closely  stuck 
together. 

FRUIT — A  woody  cone-like  catkin,  6-12  mm.  long,  remaining  on  the 
plant  during  winter,  often  distorted  by  strap-shaped  projections 
caused  by  a  fungus.  Staminate  catkins  of  the  coming  season  pendant 
at  the  ends  of  reflexed  branchlets  with  the  young  fertile  catkins 
appearing  lateral  and  pointing  downward;  seed-like  nutlets,  round, 
flattened. 

COMPARISONS — The  Speckled  Alder  is  distinguished  from  its  most 
common  relative,  the  Smooth  Alder  \_Alnus  rugosa  (Du  Roi)  Spreng.], 
by  position  of  the  fertile  catkins  which  in  the  Smooth  Alder  are  erect 
and  seem  to  be  terminal  and  in  the  Speckled  Alder  point  downward  and 
seem  to  be  lateral.  These  two  common  species  occur  throughout  New 
England  but  intermediate  forms  are  found,  especially  near  their  north- 
ern limits.  The  European  Black  Alder  [Alnus  vulgaris  Hill.]  is  some- 
what planted  for  ornament  in  this  country  and  is  reported  in  several 
localities  as  escaped  from  cultivation.  In  contrast  to  our  native  Alders 
it  has  an  erect,  distinctly  tree-like  habit  of  growth  and  reaches  in 
Europe  a  height  of  70  ft. 

DISTRIBUTION — Swamps  and  borders  of  streams.  Newfoundland  to 
Saskatchewan,  south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Nebraska. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Throughout,  more  or  less  common  especially 
toward  the  north,  local  in  sections  toward  the  south;  Connecticut — 
local  or  occasional  except  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state  where 
it  is  rare. 

WOOD — Soft,  used  as  a  source  of  gunpowder  charcoal  and  said  to  be 
further  valuable  because  of  its  durability  in  water. 


Speckled  Alder 


Zy*  TREES  1]^-  WINTER 

BEECH 
American  Beech. 

Fagus  grandifolia  Ehrh. 
F.  ferruffinia  Ait.  ;  F.  americana  Sweet ;  F.  atropunicea  Sudw. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  50-75  ft.  or  more  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  l%-4  ft.;  in  the  forest  with  a  tall  slender  trunk  free  of  branches  for 
more  than  half  its  length;  in  the  open  low-branched  with  numerous 
long,  slender,  widely  spreading  or  drooping  branches,  forming  a  sym- 
metrical, broad,  dense,  rounded,  oblong  or  obovate  head;  roots  near  the 
surface,  widely  spreading  and  sending  up  shoots  which  often  surround 
the  parent   plant  with  a  thicket  of  small  trees. 

BARK — Close,  smooth,  steel-gray;  more  or  less  dark  mottled  and 
covered  with  lichens  in  the  country;  in  or  about  cities  where  lichen 
growth  is  prevented  by  injurious  gases  in  the  air,  a  clear,  lighter  bluish- 
gray;  from  the  ease  with  which  it  is  carved,  generally  adorned  with 
initials  and  conventionalized  outlines  of  the  human  heart.  Considering 
the  uses  to  which  the  bark  is  often  put  the  Beech  might  well  be  called 
the  ^'Valentine   Tree." 

TWIGS — Slender,  somewhat  zigzag,  smooth,  shining,  reddish-brown, 
becoming  gray  on  older  growth.  Spray  flattish  from  2-ranked  position 
of  the  buds;  slow-growing  branchlets  numerous,  leafy  at  tips,  elongat- 
ing each  season  only  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch,  and  growing  but 
slightly  in  thickness:  thus  one  of  the  twigs  in  photograph  is  29 
years  old  and  had  grown  only  4i^  inches  in  length  and  acquired  a 
thickness  of  less  than  3  mm.  during  this  time.  LENTICELS — numerous, 
conspicuous,  orange  to  gray,  elongated  longitudinally.  LEAVES — fre- 
quently remaining  on  tree  in  winter,  pale  yellow,  oval,  sharp-pointed, 
with  prominent,  straight  veins,  ending  in  teeth. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Small,  raised,  elliptical  to  semi-circular.  STIPULE- 
SCARS — narrow,  distinct,  nearly  encircling  twig.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 
inconspicuous,  best  seen  by  cutting  surface  section,  5  or  more  in  double 
row  or  scattered. 

BUDS — Conspicuously  long  and  very  slender,  10-20  mm.  long,  about  5 
times  as  long  as  wide,  gradually  tapering  to  sharp-pointed  apex;  ter- 
minal bud  present  not  conspicuously  larger  than  laterals.  BUD-SCALES 
— numerous,  10-20  in  4  ranks,  increasing  in  length  from  base  to  apex, 
reddish-brown,  their  margins  more  or  less  finely  hairy  and  often  with 
a  woolly  patch  of  down  at  tip,  leaving  a  rather  long  and  distinct  set 
of  scale-scars  marking  each  year's  growth. 

FRUIT — A  stalked  bur,  densely  downy  and  covered  with  soft  spread- 
ing and  more  or  less  recurved  prickles,  4-valved,  splitting  to  near  the 
base,  remaining  on  the  tree  into  winter,  after  the  nut  has  fallen.  NUT — 
brown,  shining,  1.0-1.5  cm.  long,  3-sided  pyramidal;  seed  sweet,  edible, 

COMPARISONS — The  long  narrow  buds  and  the  smooth,  bluish-gray 
bark  of  the  Beech  make  it  an  easy'  tree  to  identify  in  the  winter.  The 
pale  persistent  dead  leaves  in  connection  with  its  habit  may  frequently 
be  used  to  distinguish  the  tree  from  a  distance,  the  Oaks  being  about 
the  only  other  trees  that  have  a  similar  retention  of  their  withered 
leaves.  The  European  Beech  [Fagus  sylvatica  L.]  with  weeping  and 
purpled-leaved  varieties  is  frequently  planted  for  ornament.  It  has  a 
darker  bark  than  the  American  tree    but  quite  closely  resembles  it. 

DISTRIBUTION — Moist,  rocky  soil.  Nova  Scotia  through  Quebec  and 
Ontario;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant;  New  Hampshire — throughout 
the  state;  common  on  the  Connecticut-Merrimac  watershed,  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  the  hardwood  forests  of  Coos  county; 
Vermont — abundant;  Massachusetts — in  western  sections  abundant, 
common  eastward;  Connecticut — occasional  or  frequent,  rarely  matur- 
ing perfect    fruit;   Rhode   Island — common. 

WOOD — Hard,  strong,  tough,  very  close-grained,  not  durable,  dif- 
ficult to  season,  dark  or  often  light  red,  with  thin  nearly  white  sap- 
wood  of  20-30  layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  chairs,  shoe  lasts,  plane  stocks,  the  handles  of  tools  and  for  fuel. 


Beech 


296  '  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

CHESTNUT 

Castanea  dentata  (Marsh.)  Borkh. 
C.  sativGj  var.  americana  Sarg.  ;   C.  vesca,  var.  americana  Michx. 


HABIT — A  large  tree,  60-80  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of  5-6 
ft.  or  larger;  in  the  forest,  trunk  tall  and  slender,  in  the  open,  trunk 
short  and  thick  generally  tapering  rapidly  from  point  of  branching 
into  top  of  tree;  lower  branches  horizontal  or  declining,  often  gnarled 
and  twisted,  upper  branches  arising  at  a  sharper  angle,  forming  a  low, 
open,  broad,  spreading,  rounded,  ovate  head  often  as  broad  as  high. 
Young  branches  tend  to  bend  up  from  all  sides  and  give  an  even-edged 
outline  to  the  tree  as  if  the  head  had  been  trimmed  like  a  round- 
topped  hedge.  The  Chestnut,  wjien  cut,  sprouts  readily  from  the  stump 
and  in  consequence  in  wood-lots  Chestnut  trees  are  most  commonly  to 
be  found  in  groups  of  2-4  or  even  more  surrounding  the  old  stump  from 
which  they  originally  sprouted.      (See  plate.) 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  reddish-bronze,  often 
shining;  with  age  broken  by  shallow  fissures  into  long,  broad,  flat, 
more  or  less  oblique  ridges. 

TWIGS — Stout,  generally  straight,  greenish-yellow  or  reddish-brown, 
smooth,  round  or  somewhat  angled  from  base  and  outer  edges  of  leaf- 
scars;  somewhat  swollen  at  nodes.  LENTICELS — Numerous,  conspicu- 
ous,  forming  minute,   raised,  white  dots.     PITH — 5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Sometimes  distinctly  2-ranked,  generally  more  than 
2-ranked.  raised,  semioval.  STIPULE-SCARS — narrow,  triangular,  often 
inconspicuous.  BUNDLE-SCARS — scattered,  inconspicuous,  if  leaf-scar 
is  surface-sectioned  bundle-scars  are  found  in  two  small  lateral  clus- 
ters and  a  large  more  or  less  circular  basal  cluster, 

BUDS — Small,  ovate,  light  to  dark  chestnut  brown,  4-6  mm.  long, 
often  oblique  to  the  leaf-scar;  terminal  bud  generally  absent,  the  end 
of  the  twig  being  marked  by  a  small  scar  and  the  bud  at  end  of  twig 
being  in  the  axil  of  the  upperruost  leaf-scar.  BUD-SCALES — 2-3  only 
visible,    thin-margined. 

FRUIT — A  large,  round  bur,  sharp-spiny  without  and  hairy  within, 
opening  by  4  valves.  Photograph  of  bur  reduced  to  about  i/^  natural 
size.  NUTS — generally  3  (1-5),  dark  brown,  white-downy  at  apex, 
ovate,   flattened   where   in   contact  with   other  nuts;    seed — sweet,   edible. 

COMPARISONS — From  the  appearance  of  gnarled  old  specimens 
grown  in  the  open,  the  Chestnut  might  be  taken  for  one  of  the  Oaks. 
Its  pith,  further,  is  star-shaped  but  its  buds  are  not  clustered  at  ends 
of  the  twigs  as  in  Oaks  and  have  only  2-3  scales  visible.  At  times 
the  buds  of  the  Chestnut  have  a  2-ranked  arrangement  and 
in  this  condition  the  twigs  alone  might  be  confused  with 
those  of  the  Linden  (which  see  under  Comparisons).  Since 
the  tree  begins  b'^^aring  early  and  the  characteristic  burs  remain  on 
the  ground,  the  fruit  is  a  valuable  winter  character.  The  bark  in 
middle-aged  trees  resembles  somewhat  that  of  the  Red  Oak.  If  the 
bark  is  blazed  the  wood  exposed  does  not  show  the  short  clear  lines 
r'^nresenting  medullary  rays  in  tangential  section  seen  in  Oaks  under 
similar   treatment. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  strong,  well-drained  soil;  pastures,  rocky  woods, 
and  hillsides.  Ontario,  common;  south  to  Delaware,  along  the  moun- 
tains to  Alabama;  west  to  Michigan,  Indiana,   and  Tennessee. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — southern  sections,  probably  not  indi- 
genous north  of  latitude  44°  20';  New  Hampshire — Connecticut  valley 
near  the  river  as  far  north  as  Windsor,  Vt. ;  most  abundant  in  the  Mer- 
rimac  valley  south  of  Concord,  but  occasional  a  short  distance  north- 
ward; Vermont — common  in  the  southern  sections,  especially  in  the  Con- 
necticut valley;  occasional  as  far  north  as  Windsor,  West  Rutland, 
Burlington;  Massachusetts — rather  common  throughout  the  state,  but 
less   frequent   near   the    sea;   Connecticut   and   Rhode   Island — common. 

W^OOD — Light,  soft,  not  very  strong,  liable  to  check  and  warp  in 
drying,  easily  split,  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  reddish-brown 
w^ith  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood  of  3  or  4  layers  of  annual  growth; 
used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  furniture  and  in  the  interior 
finish  of  houses  for  railroad  ties,  piling,  fence  posts,  and  rails.  The 
nuts,  which  are  superior  to  those  of  the  Old  World  Chestnut  in  flavor 
and  sweetness,  are  gathered  in  great  quantities  in  the  forest  and  sold 
in  the  cities. 


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Chestnut 


298  TREES  IN-  WINTER 


WHITE  OAK 

Quercus  alba  L. 


HABIT — A  larg-e  tree  with  average  height  of  50-75  ft.  and  trunk 
diameter  of  1-6  ft.,  somewhat  various  in  habit,  tending  in  the  open 
to  show  a  broad  outline,  sometimes  2-3  times  as  broad  as  high,  with 
short  trunk  and  lower  limbs  horizontal  or  declined,  characteristically 
gnarled  and  twisted. 

BARK — Light  gray  or  nearly  white,  whence  its  name;  broken  by 
shallow  fissures  into  long,  irregular,  thin  scales  which  readily  flake 
off.  On  some  trees  ridges  broken  into  short  oblongs  giving  a  rougher 
appearance  to  bark.  Bark  up  to  2  inches  thick  in  older  trees;  inner 
bark  light.  The  bark  is  rich  in  tannin,  is  of  medicinal  value  and  is  used 
in  tanning. 

TWIGS — Of  medium  thickness,  greenish-reddish  to  gray,  smooth, 
sometimes  covered  with  a  bloom.  LENTICELS — forming  conspicuous, 
light-colored,  minute,  rounded,  raised,  dots.  LEAVES — frequently  re- 
maining on  tree  throughout  winter,  oblong  to  obovate  with  generally  7 
large   blunt   lobes.     PITH — 5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Broadly  ovate,  blunt,  about  3  mm.  long  (2-6  mm.),  reddish- 
brown,    sometimes   slightly   hairy. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  autumn  of  first  year  singly  or  in  pairs,  sessile 
or  sometimes  on  slender  stalks.  NUT — ovoid  to  oblong,  rounded  at 
apex,  shiny,  light  chestnut  brown,  1.5-2.5  cm.  long,  enclosed  Vz-Va,' 
of  its  length  by  deep  saucer-shaped  to  hemispherical  cup.  Scales  of 
cup  white-woolly,  thick-knobby  at  base,  with  short,  blunt  tips 
becoming  thinner  and  flatter  at  rim  of  cup.  Meat,  sweet,  edible, 
sometimes  roasted  and  used  as  substitute  for  coffee,  or  when  boiled 
said  to  be  a  good   substitute   for  chestnuts. 

COMPARISOIVS — The  White  Oak  is  the  most  common  of  the  White 
Oak  group.  Its  light  flaky  bark  resembles  that  of  several  other  Oaks. 
It  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  Swamp  White  Oak  by  absence  of 
peeling  of  bark  on  young  branches  and  by  its  larger  and  more 
pointed  buds;  from  the  Post  Oak  by  absence  of  greenish  down  on 
twigs  and  by  generally  larger,  narrower  buds;  from  the  Chinquapin  Oak 
by  its  blunt  buds;  from  the  Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  by  its  larger  stature, 
larger  twigs  and  buds. 

DISTRIBUTION — On  moist  or  dry  ground  and  in  various  soils, 
sometimes  forming  nearly  pure  forests.  Quebec  and  Ontario;  south  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Arkansas  and 
Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — southern  sections;  New  Hampshire — most 
abundant  eastward;  in  the  Connecticut  valley  confined  to  the  hills  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  river,  extending  up  the  tributary  streams 
a  short  distance  and  disappearing  entirely  before  reaching  the  mouth 
of  the  Passumpsic;  Vermont — common  west  of  the  Green  mountains, 
less  so  in  the  southern  Connecticut  valley;  Massachusetts,  Connecticut 
and   Rhode   Island — common. 

"WOOD — Strong,  very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  close-grained,  durable,  light 
brown,  with  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood;  the  most  valuable  of  the 
Oaks  for  timber,  used  in  shipbuilding,  for  construction  and  in  cooper- 
age, the  manufacture  of  carriages,  agricultural  implements,  baskets,  the 
interior  finish  of  houses,  cabinet  making,  for  railroad  ties  and  fences, 
and  largely  as  fuel. 


Whiti:  Oak 


300  TREES  IN  WINTER 


POST  OAK 
Box  White  Oak,  Iron  Oak. 

Quercus  stellata  Wang. 
Q.  minor  Sarg.  ;   Q.  obtusiloba  Michx. 


HABIT — In  New  Eng-land  a  small  tree  with  height  in  southern 
section  up  to  60  ft.,  with  trunk  diameter  of  3  ft.;  at  northern  limit 
a  shrub  of  10-35  ft.  high  with  trunk  diameter  of  i^-l  ft.;  in  the  open 
forming  a  broad  dense,  round-topped  head  with  stout  spreading 
branches. 

BARK — Flaky;  similar  to  that  of  White  Oak  but  rather  darker, 
rougher,  corresponding  more  to  type  of  White  Oak  bark  with"^  short 
oblong  ridges;  i/^-l  inch  in  thickness.  Twigs  when  i/^  inch  to  1  inch 
in  diameter  begin  to  acquire  a  flaky  bark  with  loose,  dark  gray  scales 
lifting  at  sides  and  ends. 

T"\VIGS — Stout,  light  orange  to  reddish-brown;  the  younger  growth  by 
its  light  color,  in  striking  contrast  with  darker,  older  growth  which  is 
often  almost  black;  young  twigs  covered,  at  least  in  part,  with  short, 
dense  orange-brown  down,  rough  to  the  touch,  often  not  easily  noticed 
without  a  hand-lens.  Late  in  season  down  may  become  almost  black 
and  disappear  from  the  more  exposed  parts  of  twig.  Bases  of  leaf- 
scars  projecting  with  a  sudden  curve  from  the  twig.  LENTICELS — 
pale,  minute.  LEAVES — often  persistent,  oblong,  obovate,  thick  with 
generally  5  rounded  lobes,  the  middle  pair  much  the  largest.  PITH — • 
5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Broadly  ovate,  often  as  broad  as  long  and  hemispherical, 
blunt,  rarely  acute,  generally  under  3  mm.  long,  sometimes  up  to  6  mm. 
in   length.     BUD-SCALES — bright,    reddish-brown,   sparingly   downy. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  autumn  of  first  year,  single  or  in  pairs  or 
clustered;  sessile  or  short-stalked.  NUT — ovate  to  oblong,  1.5-2  cm. 
long,  generally  covered  with  pale  down  at  apex.  CUP — covering 
%-%  the  nut,  top-shaped  or  cup-shaped,  scales  rather  thin  and  flat, 
only  slightly  knobby,  pale,  woolly.     Meat  sweet. 

COMPARISONS — Readily  distinguished  from  White  Oak,  which  it  most 
nearly  resembles,  by  rough,  dirty  orange-brown  down  which  is  to  be 
found  more  or  less  completely  covering  twigs.  Buds  are  blunter, 
shorter,  generally  more  nearly  hemispherical  and  of  a  brighter  reddish 
tinge. 

DISTRIBUTION — Doubtfully  from  southern  Ontario;  south  to  Florida; 
west   to   Kansas,   Oklahoma  and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Mostly  in  sterile  soil  near  the  sea-coast; 
Massachusetts — southern  Cape  Cod  from  Falmouth  to  Brewster,  the  most 
northern  station  reported,  occasional;  the  islands  of  Naushon,  Martha's 
Vineyard,  where  it  is  rather  common,  and  Nantucket,  where  it  is  rare; 
Connecticut — local;  usually  in  rocky  ground  on  and  near  the  coast; 
East  Lyme  and  Old  Lyme,  Branford,  New  Haven,  Orange  and  Milford, 
and  westward;  extending  inland  as  far  as  Hamden;  on  Mt.  Carmel  and 
Huntington  at  350  ft.  elevation;  Rhode  Island — along  the  shore  of  the 
northern  arm  of  Wickford  harbor. 

WOOD — Very  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  durable  in  contact  with 
soil,  difficult  to  season,  light  or  dark  brown,  with  thick  lighter  colored 
sapwood;  used  for  fuel,  fencing,  railroad  ties  and  sometimes  in  the 
manufacture  of  carriages,  for  cooperage  and  in  construction. 


Post  Oak 


/ 


302  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


BUR  OAK 
Mossy-cup  or  Over-cup  Oak. 

Quercus  macrocarpa  Michx. 


HABIT — Although  one  of  our  largest  Oaks  in  the  central  states,  in 
New  England  of  medium  size  only  40-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  1-3  ft.;  in  the  open  forming  a  broad,  round  top  with  thick 
spreading  limbs  and   numerous   often  drooping  branchlets. 

BARK — Flaky,  resembling  that  of  White  Oak  but  rather  darker  and 
with  ridges  rather  firmer. 

TWIGS — Stout,  yellowish-brown,  smooth  or  downy,  twigs  on  some 
trees  after  the  first  year  developing  corky  ridges.  LENTICELS — minute, 
pale,  raised  dots,  inconspicuous.  LEAVES — which  sometimes  persist, 
obovate-oblong,  divided  by  deep  indentations  into  5-7  rounded  lobes,  the 
terminal  lobe   the  largest.     PITH — 5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Conical  to  broadly  ovate,  sharp-pointed  or  blunt,  3-5  mm. 
long,  reddish-brown,  covered  with  pale  wool;  lateral  buds  more  or 
less  strongly  appressed  and  flattened  against  the  twig.  Stipules  often 
persisting  at  tips  of  twigs,  long,  downy  thread-like.  BUD-SCALES — 

relatively  few  to  a  bud. 

FRUIT— Maturing  in  autumn  of  first  year,  very  variable,  sessile  or 
stalked,  generally  single.  NUT — ovate  to  oval,  2-5  cm.  long,  apex 
rounded  or  depressed,  covered  with  pale  down.  CUP — thick,  hemi- 
spherical to  top-shaped  enclosing  from  %  to  the  entire  nut;  scales  of 
cup,  pale,  woolly,  thickened  at  base  with  pointed  tips,  tips  of  upper 
scales  prolonged   into   a   more   or  less  distinct    fringe. 

COMPARISONS — The  Bur  Oak  is  sharply  distinguished  from  our 
other  Oaks  by  a  number  of  well-marked  characters  such  as  the  presence 
of  corky  ridges  on  the  young  branchlets,  the  copious  fringe  to  the 
large  acorn,  the  appressed  and  downy  buds.  These  characters,  however, 
are  not  always  present  in  a  given  specimen;  thus  the  coiky  ridges 
may  fail  to  appear  throughout  an  entire  tree;  the  acorns  may  be 
reduced  in  size  and  in  the  distinctness  of  the  fiinge;  and  the  lateral 
buds   may   be   more   or   less   divergent. 

DISTRIBUTIOiV — Low  rich  bottom  lands.  Nova  Scotia  to  Manitoba; 
south  to  Pennsylvania  and  Tennessee;  west  to  Montana,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,   Oklahoma   and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — known  only  in  the  valleys  of  the  middle 
Penobscot  and  the  Kennebec;  Vermont — lowlands,  about  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  especially  in  Addison  county,  not  common;  Massachusetts — valley 
of  the  Ware  river,  Stockbridge  and  towns  south  along  the  Housatonic 
river;  Connecticut — rich  bottom  lands  or  swampy  places,  rare  or  local 
and  confined  to  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state;  reported  from  Ca- 
naan and  Salisbury;  Rhode  Island — no  station  reported. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  White  Oak  from  which  it  is  not  generally 
distinguished  commercially,  although  superior  in  strength. 


Bur  Oak 


304  TREES  IN-  WINTER 


SWAMP  WHITE  OAK 

Quercus  bicolor  Willd. 
Q.  platanoides  Sudw. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree,  40-60  ft.  high,  with  trunk  diameter 
of  2-3  ft.;  in  the  open  with  round-topped  open  head,  sometimes  broader 
than  hig-h;  upper  limbs  ascending,  lower  limbs  rather  small,  horizon- 
tal or  declined  even  to  the  ground,  with  numerous  tufted,  small, 
scraggly,  lateral,  pendant  branchlets.  The  scraggly  branchlets  in 
connection  with  the  peeling  of  the  bark  give  a  very  rough  unkempt 
appearance  to  the  tree.  Trunk  erect,  generally  continuous,;  sometimes 
forking  above  to  give  somewhat  the  aspect  of  an  Elm  in  respect  to 
main  limbs.  In  the  open  this  tree  may  generally  be  recognized  at  a  dis- 
tance by  the  lower  branches  which  spread  out  below  to  form  a  fringe 
reminding  one  of  an  old-fashioned  hoop-skirt. 

BARK — Flaky,  grayish-brown,  divided  by  deep  longitudinal  fissures 
into  rather  long,  fiat  ridges.  Bark  on  small  branchlets,  dark  reddish- 
brown  to  black,  peeling  into  long,  persistent  stiff-papery  layers, 
which  curl  back  and  expose  the  lighter  bark  beneath. 

TWIGS — Mediumly  stout  to  slender,  yellowish-green  to  reddish- 
brown,  smooth  (seldom  slightly  downy).  Medullary  rays  generally  absent 
in  branchlets  even  of  6  to  8  years  growth.  LENTICELS — pale,  raised. 
LEAVES — which  may  persist  obovate-oblong,  .  wedge-shaped  at  base, 
wavy-margined  to  blunt-lobed,  with  6-8  pairs  of  primary  veins.  PITH — 
5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Broadly  ovate  to  oval  to  spherical;  blunt-pointed;  small,  2-4 
mm.  long.     BUD-SCALES — brown,  at  times  slightly  hairy  above  middle. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  one  year,  single  or  in  pairs  or  groups  of  3, 
generally  with  long  stalks,  2.5  to  10  cm.  long.  NUT — light  chestnut 
ovate  to  oblong,  2-3  cm.  long,  apex  covered  with  pale  down,  rounded 
or  pointed.  CUP — thick,  cup-shaped,  about  l^  enclosing  nut;  scales 
pale  woolly,  those  at  base  more  or  less  thickened,  at  rim  of  cup  tips 
of  scales  elongated,  narrow,  awn-pointed,  often  forming  short  fringe. 
Meat  sweet,   edible. 

COMPARISONS — The  sycamore-like  peeling  of  the  bark  from  the 
young  branchlets  easily  distinguishes  this  species  from  all  other  Oaks. 
The  bark  somewhat  resembles  that  of  White  Oak  but  is  somewhat 
darker  and  the  ridges  are  longer. 

DISTRIBUTION — Borders  of  swamps  and  streams.  Quebec  to  Ontario, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Blue  Oak;  south  to  Delaware  along  the 
mountains  to  northern  Georgia;  west  to  Minnesota,  Iowa,  East  Kansas 
and  Arkansas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine^York  county;  New  Hampshire — Merrimac 
valley  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Souhegan,  and  probably  throughout 
Rockingham  county;  Vermont — low  grounds  about  Lake  Champlain; 
Massachusetts — frequent  in  the  western  and  central  sections,  comiTicn 
eastward;   Connecticut — frequent;   Rhode   Island — common. 

WOOD — Similar  to  that  of  White  Oak,  and  used  for  same  general 
purposes;   sapwood.   thin,   hardly   distinguishable   from   heartwood. 


Swamp  White  Oak 


306  TREES  IN  WINTER 


CHINQUAPIN  OAK 
Chestnut  Oak,  Yellow  Oak. 

Quercus  Muhlenbergii  Engelm. 
Q.  acuminata  Houba. 


HABIT — Small  to  medium  sized  tree  30-40  ft.  high  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  1-2  ft.;  in  basin  of  the  Mississippi  reaching-  an  exception- 
al heig-ht  of  160  feet;  trunk  buttressed  at  base  in  older  specimens, 
branches  comparatively  small  forming  narrow,  round-topped  head. 

BARK — Thin,  flaky,  broken  into  loose  grayish  or  sometimes  slightly 
brownish  scales. 

T\VIGS — Rather     slender,     light     orange     to     reddish-brown,     smooth. 
LENTICELS — pale,      inconspicuous.         LEAVES — resembling      those      of 
Chestnut    with    large,    incurved,    glandular-tipped    teeth    or    rarely    with 
wavy    margin    resembling     the     leaf     of    the    Chestnut     Oak.     PITH^ 
5-pointed,  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Narrowly  ovate  to  conical,  sharp-pointed,  3-5  mm,  long.  BUD- 
SCALES — light  chestnut  brown,  slightly  hairy  on  edges,  appearing 
longitudinally  striate  if  held  toward  light  and  viewed  with  a  hand- 
lens.     Buds  similar  to  those  of  Chestnut  Oak  but  smaller. 

FRUIT — Maturing  the  first  season,  sessile  or  short-stalked,  singly  or 
in  pairs.  NUT — broadly  ovate  to  oval,.  15-20  mm.  long,  narrowed  and 
rounded  at  pale  downy  apex,  light  chestnut  brown.  CUP — thin,  rather 
shallow  cup-shaped  enclosing  about  Yz  or  less  of  the  nut;  scales  pale 
brown,  woolly,  slightly  knobby  at  base  of  cup,  the  brownish  tips  of  the 
scales  sometimes  forming  a  slight  fringe  at  rim  of  cup.  Meat  sweet, 
edible. 

COMPARISONS — The  Chinquapin  Oak  resembles  the  Chestnut  Oak  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  on  the  other.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  former  by  its  flaky,  gray  bark,  and  the  smaller 
size  of  buds  and  acorns;  from  the  latter  by  its  sharp-pointed  buds  and 
larger  size. 

DISTRIBUTION — Rare  and  local  in  the  Atlantic  states,  usually  on 
limestone  soil,  on  dry  hillsides,  rocky  ridges  and  rich  bottoms.  Ontario; 
south  to  Delaware  and  District  of  Columbia,  along  the  mountains  to 
northern  Alabama;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma 
and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Vermont — Gardner's  Island,  Lake  Champlain, 
Ferrisburg;  Connecticut — rare;  calcareous  ridges  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  state;  Canaan,  Salisbury,  also  along  the  Housatonic  river 
in  Kent,  New  Milford  and  bordering  tide  water  in  Milford. 

WOOD — Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  durable,  with  thin, 
light-colored  sapwood,  largely  used  in  cooperage,  for  wheels,  fencing 
and  railroad  ties. 


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308  TREES  IN  WINTER 


DWARF  CHINQUAPIN  OAK 
Scrub  Chestnut  Oak,  Chinquapin  Oak,  Scrub  Oak. 

Quercus  prinoides  Willd. 


HABIT — A  low  shrub  generally  2-4  ft.  high  or  occasionally  reaching 
15  ft.  in  heigh,  forming  broad  clumps  by  prolific  stolons. 

BARK — Light  brown,  scaly;  scaliness  evident  when  trunk  reaches  a 
diameter  of  1%  inches. 

TWIGS — Slender;  generally  not  over  2  mm.  thick,  orange  to  reddish- 
brown  ;  generally  smooth ;  a  variety,  rufescens  Rehder,  with  yellowish 
.lairs  on  twigs.  LENTICELS — pale,  rather  conspicuous.  LEAVES — 
oblanceolate  to  obovate-oblong,  coarsely  wavy-toothed.  PITH — 5-point- 
ed,  star-shaped. 

BUDS — Spherical  to  ovate,  rounded  or  slightly  narrowed  at  apex, 
about  3  mm.  long.  SCALES — chestnut  brown,  thin,  scarious  and  slightly 
hairy  on  edges;  small  collateral  buds  sometimes  present  on  either  side 
of  axillary  bud. 

FRUIT — Maturing  the  first  season,  produced  in  great  abundance,  ses- 
sile or  short-stalked,  singly  or  in  pairs.  NUT — oval,  light  chestnut 
brown  and  shiny,  apex  blunt-pointed  and  covered  with  pale  down,  15 
to  25  mm.  long.  CUP — thin,  deep  cup-shaped,  covering  ^  or  more 
of  nut;  scales  pale  woolly,  more  or  less  knobby,  thickened  at  base 
of  cup,  thinner  toward  rim.     Meat  sweet. 

C03IPARIS0NS — In  habit  the  Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  most  nearly 
resembles  the  Bear  Oak  but  is  smaller  when  of  the  same  age;  has  flaky 
bark  after  reaching  a  trunk  diameter  of  l^^  inches  or  more,  while  the 
bark  of  the  Bear  Oak  is  close,  for  the  most  part  smooth,  even  on  old 
specimens  not  flaky  though  developing  small  close  scales.  It  further 
belongs  to  the  White  Oak  group  (see  page  204)  and  since  both  these 
two  Scrub  Oaks  produce  fruit  in  great  abundance  acorns  are  generally 
accessible  and  easily  distinguished.  The  Bear  Oak  generally  has  redder, 
sharp-pointed  buds,  while  those  of  the  Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  are 
blunt  with  edges  of  scales  ashy  with  fine  wool  or  mealy  scurfiness. 
Moreover,  except  in  variety  rufescens,  twigs  of  the  Dwarf  Chinquapin 
Oak  are  smooth.  The  Chestnut  Oak  and  the  Chinquapin  Oak  are 
distinguished  by  their  larger  and  sharp-pointed  buds.  The  buds  of 
the  Swamp  White  Oak  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  Dwarf 
Chinquapin  Oak  but  the  larger  size  of  the  tree  and  peeling  of  the  bark 
on  branchlets  of  the  Swamp  White  Oak  are  distinctive.  Further  west 
apparently  the  species  inter-grades  into  the  Chinquapin  Oak. 

DISTRIBUTION — Dry  woods,  rocky  slopes  and  hillside  pastures,  some> 
times  in  open  sandy  soil.  From  Maine  south  to  North  Carolina,  west 
to  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — more  or  less  common  throughout. 

WOOD — From  small  size  of  plant,  of  no  economic  value  except  as  fuel. 


Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak: 


310  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


CHESTNUT  OAK 
Rock  Chestnut  Oak,  Rock  Oak. 

Quercus  Prinus  L. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  or  small  tree,  25-50  ft.  high  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  l-2l^  ft.;  further  south  much  larger,  reaching  100  ft.  in 
height;  trunk  tall,  straight,  continuous,  or  divided  rather  low  down  into 
large  spreading  limbs,  forming  broad  open  head,  sometimes  broader 
than   high, 

BARK — Brown  to  black,  deeply  fissured  into  long,  more  or  less  con- 
tinuous, thick,  rough  ridges  which  are  somewhat  flattened  on  surface  or 
on  older  trees  more  characteristically  rounded  or  sharp-edged,  a  section 
through  one  of  the  ridges  forming  thus  an  inverted  letter  "V"  with  its 
apex  somewhat  rounded  or  in  younger  specimens  flattened;  bark  of 
young  trees  and  of  smaller  branches  smooth. 

TWIGS — Stout,  light  orange  to  reddish-brown,  smooth  with  some- 
what bitter  taste.  LENTICELS — pale,  generally  inconspicuous.  LEAVES 
— oblong,  lanceolate  to  obovate,  wavy-margined  with  10-16  pairs  of 
primary  veins.     PITH — 5-pointed,  star-shaped. 

BL'DS — Narrowly  ovate-conical,  sharp-pointed,  4-10  mm,  long.  BUD- 
SCALES — light  chestnut  brown,  slightly  hairy  toward  apex  and  on 
margins,  appearing  longitudinally  striate  if  viewed  toward  light  with  a 
hand-lens.  Margins  of  scales  tend  to  lose  their  brown  color  and  to 
become  light  or  dark  gray. 

FRUIT — Maturing  the  first  season,  short-stalked,  singly  or  in  pairs. 
NUT — shiny,  light  chestnut  brown,  oval  to  ovate  to  nearly  cylindrical, 
variable  in  size  and  relative  thickness;  20-35  mm.  long;  from  three 
times  to  less  than  twice  as  long  as  broad.  CUP — thin,  deep,  top- 
shaped  to  hemispherical,  covering  Vs  or  less  of  nut;  scales  reddish- 
brown,  woolly,  more  or  less  knobby  especially  toward  base  of  cup.  Meat 
sweet. 

COMPARISONS — The  Chestnut  Oak  is  readily  distinguished  from 
the  other  members  of  the  "White  Oak  group  by  the  fact  that  its  bark 
is  not  flaky.  Its  firm,  round-ridged  bark  is  definitely  characteristic 
when  typically  developed.  The  buds  resemble  somewhat  those  of  the 
Red  Oak,  but  are  somewhat  lighter  in  color  with  edges  of  scales 
bleached,  are  much  narrower  and  for  the  most  part  conical,  with  the 
widest  part  at  or  very  near  the  base,  whereas  the  buds  of  the  Red  Oak 
when  typically  developed,  are  much  fatter,  with  the  widest  part  about 
a  third  of  the  distance  from  the  base.  The  bark  of  the  Red  Oak, 
moreover,  has  flat  ridges. 

DISTRIBUTION — Woods,  rocky  ridges  and  hillsides.  Along  the  Cana- 
dian shore  of  Lake  Erie;  south  to  Delaware  and  along  the  mountains 
to  Georgia,  extending  nearly  to  the  summit  of  Mt.  Pisgah  in  North 
Carolina;   west   to   Kentucky,   Tennessee,   and   Alabama. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — Saco  river  and  Mt.  Agamenticus,  near 
the  southern  coast;  New  Hampshire — belts  or  patches  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state  and  along  the  southern  border.  Hinsdale, 
Winchester,  Brookline,  Manchester,  Hudson;  Vermont;  western  part  of 
the  state  throughout,  not  common;  abundant  at  Smoke  mountain  at 
an  altitude  of  1,300  feet,  and  along  the  western  flank  of  the  Green 
mountains  at  least  in  Addison  county;  Massachusetts — eastern  sections. 
Sterling.  Lancaster,  Russell,  Middleboro,  rare  in  Medford  and  Sudbury, 
frequent  on  the  Blue  Hills;  Connecticut — occasional  near  the  coast; 
frequent  or  common  elsewhere;  Rhode  Island — locally  common. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  tough,  close  grained,  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  largely  used  for  fencing,  railroad  ties,  ranking 
next  to  the  White  Oak  for  this  purpose,  and  for  fuel.  The  bark  is 
rich  in  tannin  and  is  consumed  in  large  quantities  in  tanning  leather. 


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Chestnut  Oak 


312  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

RED  OAK 

Quercus  rubra  L. 


HABIT — The  largest  of  our  New  England  Oaks,  50-85  ft.  high,  reach- 
ing an  exceptional  height  of  150  ft.;  with  trunk  diameter  of  2-6  ft.; 
trunk  branching  rather  higher  up  than  in  the  White  Oak,  often  continu- 
ous into  the  top  of  the  tree  with  ascending  branches  forming  a  rather 
narrow,  round-topped  head  or  spreading  more  widely  as  shown  in  the 
specimen  photographed  becoming  even  broader  than  high.  The  limbs 
in  the  main  are  not  so  horizontal  or  declined  nor  so  crooked  as  in  the 
"White  Oak  and  the  tree  in  consequence  offers  a  less  gnarled  aspect. 

BARK — On  young  trees  and  upper  parts  of  older  trees  smooth,  gray- 
brown;  on  trunks  of  mature  trees  and  on  their  thicker  limbs  up  to  4  cm. 
thick,  tardily  broken  by  shallow  furrows  into  dark  brown,  rather 
regular,  elongated,  firm,  coarse,  flat-topped  ridges.  The  flat  ridges 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  species  are  often  in  older  trees  roughened 
up  toward  the  base  of  the  trunk  so  that  the  distinctive  character  of 
the  bark  must  be  sought  higher  up  on  the  trunk  or  on  the  larger 
limbs.     Inner  bark,   light   reddish,   not   bitter. 

TWIGS — Mediumly  stout  to  slender,  reddish  to  greenish-brown. 
LENTICELS — pale,  often  inconspicuous.  LEAVES — obovate  to  oblong, 
with  bristle-pointed  lobes,  often  difficult  to  distinguish  from  those  of 
Black  Oak.     PITH — 5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Oval  to  ovate,  4-8  mm.  long,  with  widest  part  typically 
14  to  Vs  above  base  suggesting  appearance  of  a  short  stalk  to  the  bud; 
sharp  pointed  with  more  or  less  distinct  development  of  rusty  hairs  at 
the  extreme  apex,  otherwise  smooth  or  sometimes  slightly  pale-woolly 
on  upper  half.  BUD-SCALES — numerous,  light  chestnut  brown  seen 
to  be  longitudinally  striate  with  darker  lines  when  viewed  toward 
light  with  a  hand-lens,  margins  slightly  hairy. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  autumn  of  second  season,  singly  or  in  pairs, 
sessile  or  on  a  short,  thick  stalk.  NUT — ovate  to  cylindrical  with  broad 
base  and  narrowed,  rounded  apex^  dark  chestnut  brown,  large,  2-3  cm. 
long.  CUP — flat,  shallow,  thick,  saucer-shaped  (rarely  somewhat 
top-shaped),  rim  somewhat  constricted,  enclosing  about  %  of  the  nut, 
2-3.5  cm.  across.  Scales  thin,  reddish-brown,  shining,  not  at  all  or 
but  slightly  hairy,  closely  overlapping.  Meat  pale  yellow,  slightly 
bitter.  Immature  acorns  generally  divergent  or  but  slightly  appressed, 
with  basal  scales  reaching  about  half  way  up,  giving  appearance  of  3 
rows   of  scales. 

COMPARISONS — If  the  acorns  are  obtainable  the  Red  Oak  is  not 
to  be  confused  with  any  of  our  other  species,  the  large  flat  cup  being 
distinctive.  The  flat  flutings  of  the  bark  and  the  fat,  basally  con- 
stricted, sharp-pointed  buds  are  further  characteristic.  See  Black 
Oak  for  comparison  with  Red  and  Black  and  Scarlet  Oak,  and  Chestnut 
Oak  for  comparison  with  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Woods,  widely  adapted  to  various  conditions  of  soil 
and  situation  except  distinctly  wet  lands,  ranges  further  north  than 
our  other  Oaks  and  is  most  planted  of  the  American  Oaks  in  Europe. 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  to  divide  west  of  Lake  Superior;  south 
to  Tennessee,  Virginia  and  along  mountain  ranges  to  Georgia;  reported 
from  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska.  Kansas  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common,  at  least  south  of  the  central 
portions;  New  Hampshire — extending  into  Coos  County,  far  north  of  the 
White  Mountains;  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island — common;  probably  in  most  parts  of  New  England  the  most  com- 
mon of  the  genus;  found  higher  up  the  slopes  of  mountains  than  the 
White  Oak. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  coarse-grained,  light  reddish-brown,  with 
thin  lighter  colored  sapwood;  used  in  construction,  for  the  interior 
finish  of  houses,  and  in  furniture.  Timber  of  this  species,  as  also  of 
Black  and  Scarlet  Oak,  is  relatively  poor  but  is  more  used  than  for- 
merly on  account  of  scarcity  of  better. 


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Eed  Oak 


I 


314  TREES  IN  WINTER 


PIN  OAK 
Swamp  Oak,  Water  Oak. 

Qiiercus  palustris  Muench. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree  40-50  ft,  high  with  trunk  diameter  of  1-2 
ft.,  reaching  a  maximum  height  of  over  100  ft.  in  the  lower  Ohio 
basin;  trunk  tall,  straight,  continuous  up  through  the  pyramidal  head; 
limbs  numerous,  slender;  lower  limbs  short,  drooping,  upper  limbs  longer 
horizontal  or  ascending,  generally  studded  with  short  lateral  shoots 
which  give  rise  to  the  common  name.  The  habit  of  this  tree  is  very 
characteristic  and  is  well  shown  in  the  two  specimens  in  the  illus- 
tration.    In  older  trees  the  head  is  more  open  and  irregular. 

BARK — Of  young  trunks  and  limbs,  smooth,  shiny,  light  brown;  on 
older  trunks  darker,  furrowed  with  close,  narrow,  firm,   low  ridges. 

TWIGS — Slender,  reddish-brown  to  orange,  shining.  LENTICELS — pale, 
scattered,  inconspicuous.  LEAVES — small,  obovate  or  oblong;  lobes 
bristle-tipped,  separated  by  deep,  rounded  indentations,  resembling 
leaves    of    Scarlet    Oak    but    smaller.       PITH — 5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

BUDS — Conical  to  ovate,  generally  sharp-pointed,  small,  2-4  mm.  long. 
BUD-SCALES — light  chestnut  brown,  sometimes  slightly  hairy  on  the 
thin  margins. 

FRl'IT — Maturing  the  second  season,  abundant,  sessile  or  short- 
stalked,  solitary  or  in  pairs  or  clusters.  NUT — light  brown,  often  striate, 
nearly  hemispherical,  10-15  mm.  long,  wider  than  long,  and  generally 
wider  than  the  cup.  CUP — thin,  saucer-shaped,  10-15  mm.  across,  enclos- 
ing only  the  base  of  the  nut;  scales  thin,  slightly  downy,  closely  over- 
lapping.    Meat  pale  yellow,  slightly  bitter. 

COMPARISOIVS — When  young  the  Pin  Oak  is  one  of  the  most  easily 
recognized  of  any  of  our  trees  in  winter  from  its  general  habit  of 
growth.  Its  continuous  trunk,  fringed  with  slender  branches,  and  its 
comparatively  smooth  bark  roughened  only  slightly  by  narrow,  low 
ridges  are  alone  distinctive.  Further  characteristics  are  the  small 
sharp-pointed  buds  and  the  small  acorns  with  saucer-shaped  cup. 

DISTRIBUTION — Borders  of  swamps  and  river  bottoms  in  deep  moist 
rich  soil.  Ontario;  south  to  the  valley  of  the  lower  Potomac  in 
Virginia;  west  to  Minnesota,  east  Kansas,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and 
Oklahoma. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Massachusetts — Amherst;  bpringfield,  south  to 
Connecticut,  rare;  Connecticut — common  in  the  Connecticut  river  valley 
and  near  the  coast  in  southwestern  Connecticut;  occasional  or  local 
elsewhere;  Rhode  Island — southern  portions,  bordering  the  great  Kings- 
ton swamp  and  on  the  margin  of  the  Pawcatuck  River. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  coarse-grained,  but  liable  to  warp  and  check  in 
drying;  light  brown,  with  thin  rather  darker  colored  sapwood;  some- 
times used  in  construction  and  for  shingles  and  clapboards. 


Pin  Oak 


316  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

SCARLET  OAK 

Quercus  coccinea  Muench. 


HABIT — A  tree  of  medium  size,  '30-50  ft.  high  with  trunk  diameter 
of  1-3  ft.,  larger  further  south;  trunk  tends  to  be  continuous  into  the 
crown,  narrowed  and  giving  off  ascending  branches  above  and 
horizontal,  often  terminally  declined  branches  below;  limbs  long  and 
comparatively  slender  for  an  Oak,     forming  a  rather  narrow,  open  head. 

BARK^ — Of  young  trunks  and  limbs  smooth,  light  brown,  on  older 
trunks  and  limbs  up  to  2.5  cm.  thick,  divided  by  shallow  furrows  into 
irregular  ridges  which  in  general  are  neither  so  regularly  flat-topped 
as  the  ridges  of  the  Red  Oak  nor  so  roughly  broken  up  as  those  of  the 
Black  Oak.  The  bark  therefore  may  be  considered  as  intermediate  in 
character  between  these  two  species.     Inner  bark,  reddish  not  bitter. 

TWIGS — Mediumly  stout  to  slender,  light  red  to  orange  red.  LENTI- 
CELS — numerous,  minute,  pale,  inconspicuous.  LEAVES —  broadly 
oval  or  obovate,  with  bristle-tipped  lobes  separated  by  deep  rounded 
indentations.      PITH — 5-pointed,    star-shaped. 

BUDS — Broadly  oval  to  ovate,  narrowed  above  to  a  typically  rather 
blunt  apex,  widest  at  or  slightly  below  middle,  dark  reddish-brown,  4-8 
mm.  long,  pale  woolly  above  middle,  lower  half  mostly  free  from  wool. 
BUD-SCALES — numerous,  free  from  distinct  longitudinal  striations. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  autumn  of  second  season,  sessile  or  short-stalksd, 
singly  or  in  pairs.  NUT — oval  to  oblong,  variable  in  shape,  1  to  2.5 
cm.  long,  Jight  reddish  brown,  occasionally  striate.  CUP — thin,  top- 
shaped  or  cup-shaped,  constricted  at  base,  enclosing  %  to  %  of  nut. 
Scales,  light  reddish-brown,  thin,  closely  overlapping,  slightly  downy, 
tips  of  scales  at  rim  typically  appressed  against  the  nut — not  spread- 
ing. Meat  pale  yellow,  slightly  bitter.  Immature  acorns  appressed, 
rather  smooth  and  shiny,  light  brown,  main  basal  scales  generally 
reaching  less   than  halfway  up   giving  appearance   of   2   rows   of  scales. 

COMPARISONS — The  size  and  shape  of  the  acorn  cup  as  well  as  the 
greater  woolliness  of  the  upper  part  of  the  buds  distinguish  this  species 
from  the  Red  Oak.  From  the  Black  Oak  it  is  distinguished  by  the 
appressed  scales  of  acorn  cup,  by  the  fatter  buds  which  are  less  wolly, 
and  that  only  above  the  middle  and  by  the  pale  inner  *bark.  See  also 
under  Black  Oak. 

DISTRIBUTION — Most  common  on  dry,  sandy  soil.  Ontario;  south  to 
the  middle  states  and  along  the  mountains  to  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee; reported  from  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska  and  Mis- 
souri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — valley  of  the  Androscoggin,  southward; 
New  Hampshire — common  about  Manchester;  Vermont — not  authori- 
tatively reported  by  recent  observers;  Massachusetts — more  common  in 
the  eastern  than  western  sections,  sometimes  covering  considerable 
areas;  Connecticut  and  Rhode   Island — common. 

WOOD— Heavy,  hard,  strong,  coarse-grained,  light  or  reddish-brown, 
with  thick  darker  colored  sapwood,  less  valuable  than  wood  of  Red  Oak 
but  used  for  the  same  purposes. 


Scarlet  Oak 


±XiJiiLi3    IIN     WXINX-Citt 


BLACK  OAK 

Yellow-barked  Oak,  Quercitron,  Yellow  Oak. 

Quercus  velutina  Lam. 
Q.  coccinea,  var.  tinctoria  A.DC.  ;   Q.  tinctoria  Bartr. 


HABIT — One  of  our  largest  oaks  50-75  ft.  high  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  2-4  ft.,  reaching  its  greatest  development  in  Ohio  basin  with  a 
maximum  height  of  150  ft.;  somewhat  similar  in  general  habit  to  the 
Scarlet  Oak;  limbs  generally  somewhat  stouter;  head  may  be  wide 
spreading  or  narrowed  oblong. 

BARK — Dark  gray  to  blackish,  often  lighter  near  the  seashore,  up  to 
4  cm.  thick,  very  rough,  broken  by  deep  furrows  into  thick  t-idges  which 
are  further  divided  by  cross  fissures  giving  an  appearance  of  irregular 
block-like  strips.  The  bark  is  roughened  especially  at  the  base  of 
trunk  even  "in  quite  young  trees.  The  young  bark  in  beginning  to 
fissure  for  a  time  may  have  flattened  ridges  resembling  those  of  Red 
Oak,  but  they  are  soon  transversely  roughened.  Inner  bark  orange- 
yellow,  intensely  bitter;  this  with  the  buds  forms  the  most  distinctive 
character. 

TWIGS — Stout,  reddish-brown  or  reddish,  mottled  with  gray;  tasting 
bitter  if  chewed  and  coloring  saliva  yellowish.  LENTICELS — scattered, 
generally  large,  conspicuous.  LEAVES — obovate  to  oblong  with  broad 
bristle-pointed  lobes  sometimes  indistinguishable  from  those  of  Scarlet 
Oak.  Large,  thin-walled,  spherical  insect  galls  formed  on  leaves  seem 
to  be  most  common  on  the  Black  Oak.  (See  plate.)  PITH — 5-pointed, 
star-shapei. 

BTDS — Ovate  to  conical,  large  6-12  mm.  long,  narrowed  above  to  a 
rather  sharp  point,  generally  5-sided,  strongly  angled,  covered  except 
basal  row  of  scales  with  dense,  pale  yellowish-gray  to  dirty-white  wool. 
BUD-SCALES — numerous,    not    distinctly    longitudinally    striate. 

FRriT — Maturing  in  autumn  of  second  year,  singly  or  in  pairs,  sessile 
or  short-stalked,  deep  cup-shaped  to  top-shaped.  NUT — ovate-oblong, 
variable  in  shape,  1-2  cm.  long,  light  reddish-brown,  frequently 
coated  with  soft  down,  often  striate.  CUP — thin,  deeply  cup  to  top- 
shaped,  more  or  less  constrijcted  at  base;  scales, of  cup  thin,  light 
reddish-brown,  finely  woolly,  closely  overlapping  at  base,  loosely 
overlapping  above  with  free  tips  horizontally  wrinkled  and  forming  a 
loose  more  or  less  spreading  fringe-like  border  to  cup.  Meat  yellower 
and  more  bitter  than  that  of  the  Scarlet  Oak.  Immature  acorns  appressed 
or  recurved  toward  twig,  slightly  woolly;  main  scales  extending  nearly 
to  the  top  giving  the  appearance  of  a  single  row  of  scales. 

COMPARISONS — The  three  most  common  trees  of  the  Black  Oak  group 
(the  Red,  the  Black  and  the  Scarlet)  are  readily  distinguished  by  their 
bud  characters.  Those  of  the  Black  Oak  are  densely  pale  woolly  over 
whole  surface,  those  of  Scarlet  Oak  are  less  densely  pale  woolly,  and 
the  woolliness  is  confined  to  upper  half.  They  are  more  nearly  oval 
than  those  of  the  Black  Oak,  the  widest  part  being  toward  the  middle. 
The  Red  Oak  Buds  are  generally  free  from  pale  woolliness 
though  having  often  rusty  hairs  at  extreme  apex;  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  Scarlet  Oak  the  widest  part  is  nearer 
the  base.  The  yellow  bitter  inner  bark  and  the  yellow  discol- 
oration of  the  saliva  when  the  twigs  are  chewed  distinguish  the  Black 
Oak  from  the  other  two.  The  Red  Oak  has  flat-topped  ridges,  these  in 
the  Black  Oak  are  broken  into  rough  blocks,  while  the  bark  of  the 
Scarlet  Oak  is  intermediate  between  the  two  types.  The  acorns  of 
the  Red  Oak  are  large  with  large  shallow  saucer-shaped  cups,  those 
of  the  Scarlet  and  Black  are  smaller,  and  have  deeper  cups.  The  cup 
scales  of  the  Black  Oak  form  a  loose  fringe  at  the  rim  and  are  wrinkled, 
those  of  the  Scarlet  are  closely  over-lapping  and  form  no  fringe.  The 
acorn  characters  are  distinctive  for  the  Red  Oak  but  are  not  so  good 
quite  in  .separating  the  Black  and  Scarlet  Oaks  from  each  other, 
although  when  typically  developed  the  acorns  of  the  two  trees  can  be 
readily  distinguished.  The  bark  characters  can  be  used  when  typically 
developed  in  separating  the  Red  from  the  Black  Oak  but  are  not  as 
decisive  as  bud  or  inner  bark  characters. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  poor  soils;  on  dry  gravelly  plains  and  ridges. 
Southern  and  western  Ontario;  south  to  the  Gulf  states'^  west  to  Min- 
nesota,   Kansas.    Oklahoma    and    Texas. 

IN  NEW   ENGLAND Maine — York  county;  New  Hampshire — valley 

of  the  lower  Merrimac  and  eastward,  absent  on  the  highlands,  reappear- 
ing within  three  or  four  miles  of  the  Connecticut,  ceasing  at  North 
Charlestown;  Vermont — western  and  southwester  sections;  Massachu- 
setts— abundant   eastward;    Connecticut    and    Rhode   Island — frequent. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong  though  not  tough,  coarse-grained  and 
liable  to  check  in  drying,  bright  brown  tinged  with  red,  with  thin  lichter 
colored  sapwood;  of  little  value  except  as  fuel.  The  bark  abounds  in 
tannic  acid  and  is  largely  used  in  tanning,  as  a  yellow  dye  and  an 
astringent  in  medicine. 


Black  Oak 


320  TREES  IN  WINTER 


BEAR  OAK 

Black  Scrub  Oak. 

Quercus  ilicifolia  Wang. 

Q.  nana  Sarg.  ;   Q.  pumila  Sudw. 


HABIT — Usually  a  shrub  3-10  ft.  high,  though  frequently  becoming 
tree-like  and  reaching  a  maximum  height  of  25  ft.  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  i/^  to  1  ft.;  trunk  short,  branches  stiff,  contorted,  slender, 
jpreading    and    forming    a    wide    flat    or    round-topped    head. 

BARK — Thin,  dark  brown,  smooth,  except  for  small,  close,  thin  scales 
on  older  trunks,  never  however  breaking  into  large,  flaky  scales. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  j'ellowish-green  to  reddish-brown,  covered  with 
greenish-yellowish  to  reddish  down  which  often  disappears  from  expos- 
ed parts  of  the  twig  during  the  winter  but  which  can  generally  be  found 
in  protected  parts  at  the  tips,  bases  or  between  the  ridges  of  the  season's 
shoots.  LENTICELS — minute,  pale,  inconspicuous  on  shoots  of  season. 
Leaves  often  breaking  off  above  place  of  attachment  leaving  base  of  leaf- 
stalk projecting  throughout  winter  (see  illustration).  LEAVES — small, 
obovate,  nearly  entire  or  with  3-7  bristle-tipped  lobes,  downy  beneath. 
PITH — 5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

BUDS — Ovate  to  conical,  sharp  or  blunt  pointed,  small,  generally  not 
over  3  mm.  long.  BUD-SCALES — dark  chestnut  brown,  generally 
minutely   hairy   on  the  margins. 

FRUIT — Maturing  in  second  season,  produced  in  great  abundance, 
clustered  along  the  stem,  generally  in  pairs  or  rarely  singly,  sessile 
or  generally  short-stalked.  NUT — varying  in  shape,  ovate  to  spheri- 
cal, 10-15  mm.  long,  light  brown,  shining,  generally  more  or  less 
longitudinally  striate.  Cup — top-shaped  to  rather  deeply  saucer- 
shaped,  more  or  less  constricted  at  base,  thick,  enclosing  about  i/^  the 
nut;  scales  of  cup  reddish-brown,  slightly  downy,  thin,  closely  over- 
lapping with  free  tips  of  upper  scales  forming  a  fringe-like  border 
to   cup. 

COMPARISONS — The  Dwarf  Chinquapin  Oak  is  the  only  one  likely 
to  be  confused  with  the  Bear  Oak.  The  points  of  difference  between 
the  two  species  may  be  found  in  Comparisons  under  Dwarf  Chinquapin 
Oak. 

DISTRIBBUTION — Dry  sandy  or  rocky  sterile  ground.  Maine;  south 
to  Ohio  and  the  mountain  regions  of  North  Carolina  and  Kentucky; 
west   to   the   Alleghany   mountains. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — frequent  in  eastern  and  southern  sec- 
tions and  upon  Mount  Desert  Island;  New  Hampshire — as  far  north  as 
Conway,  more  common  near  the  lower  Connecticut;  Vermont — in  the 
eastern  and  southern  sections  as  far  north  as  Bellows  Falls;  Connecti- 
cut— rare  in  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  local,  frequent  or  common 
elsewhere;  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island — abundant,  forming,  in  fa- 
vorable situations,  dense  thickets,   sometimes  covering  several  acres. 

WOOD — Too  scant  to  be  of  an  economic  value. 


V»/ 

Bear  Oak 


322  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


SLIPPERY  ELM 

Red  Elm,  Moose  Elm. 

Ulmus  fulva  Michx. 

U.  puhescens  Walt. 


HABIT — A  small  to  medium-sized  tree,  40-60  ft.  in  height  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  l-2i/^  ft.;  forming  a  broad  open  rather  flat-topped 
head,  resembling-  the  White  Elm  but  with  less  drooping  branches, 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  more  or  less  deeply  furrowed,  the  ridges 
tending  rather  more  than  in  the  White  Elm  to  lift  along  one  edge,  inter- 
nally reddish-brown  without  conspicuously  whitish  layers  (see  bark  sec- 
tion in  plate);  inner  bark  next  the  wood,  whitish,  strongly  mucilagi- 
nous,  giving  the   name   Slippery  Elm. 

TWIGS — Light,  grayish,  hairy,  roughened  by  numerous  raised  lenti- 
cels,  strongly  and  characteristically  mucilaginous  if  chewed. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  with  generally  .3  sunken  bundle- 
scars,    resembling    those    of    the    White    Elm. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  about  6  mni.  long,  dark 
brown,  covered  especially  at  their  tips  with  long  rusty  hairs;  flower 
buds  more  or  less  spherical.  BUD-SCALES — in  2  ranks  of  a  nearly 
uniform  color. 

FRUIT — A  flat  round  entire- winged  fruit  without  hairy  fringe,  ripen-" 
ing  in   spring. 

C03IPARIS0NS — The  Slippery  Elm  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
common  White  Elm  and  the  rarer  Cork  Elm  by  its  rough  gray  twigs, 
its  dark  buds  covered  with  long  rusty  hairs  and  by  the  strongly 
mucilaginous  character  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  trunk  and  even,  though 
to  a  somewhat  less  extent,  of  the  twigs,  and  further  from  the  White 
Elm  by  the  absence  of  distinct  white  layers  in  the  outer  bark. 

DISTRIBUTION — Rich,  low  grounds;  low,  rocky  woods  and  hillsides. 
Valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  apparently  not  abundant;  south  to  Florida; 
west  to  North  Dakota  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — District  of  Maine,  rare;  Waterborough, 
(York  county);  New  Hampshire — valley  of  the  Connecticut,  usually 
disappearing  within  ten  miles  of  the  river;  ranges  as  far  north  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Passumpsic;  Vermont — frequent;  Massachusetts — rare  in 
the  eastern  sections,  frequent  westward;  Connecticut — rare  to  frequent; 
Rhode  Island — infrequent. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  coarse-grained,  durable,  easy  to 
split,  dark  brown  or  red,  with  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood;  largely 
used  for  fence  posts,  railroad  ties,  the  sills  of  buildings,  the  hubs  of 
wheels  and  in  agricultural  implements.  The  thick  fragrant  mucil- 
aginous inner  bark  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  demulcent  and  is  some- 
what nutritious. 


Slippery  Elm 


324  TREES  IN  WINTER 


ENGLISH  ELM 

Ulmus  campestris  L. 
U.  glabra  Mill. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  reaching  100  ft.  in  height;  trunk  erect,  gen- 
erally continuous  well  into  the  crown,  with  branches  given  off  at  a 
broad  angle  and  continued  horizontally  or  inclined  upward,  not  drooping 
at  the  ends  in  the  graceful  curves  characteristic  of  the  American  White 
Elm,  producing  rather  an  Oak-like  appearance  with  an  oblong  round- 
topped   head. 

BARK — Dark,  with  ridges  broken  transversely  into  firm  oblong  blocks. 

T^VIGS — Similar  to  the  White  Elm  but  generally  a  darker  reddish- 
brown,    usually   smooth    or   somewhat   downy. 

LiEAR-SCARS — Similar  to  the  White  Elm,  bundle-scars  frequently 
more  than   3. 

BIDS — Similar  to  the  White  Elm  but  of  a  dark  smoky  brown  color 
or  almost  black,  smooth  or  more  or  less  hairy.  BUD-SCALES — nearly 
uniform   in   color. 

FRl  IT — A  flat,   ovate,  smooth,  entire-winged  fruit,   ripening  in  spring. 

COMPARISONS — The  erect  Oak-like  habit,  the  firm  blocked  ridges 
of  the  bark,  and  the  smoky  smoothish  buds  will  serve  to  distinguish 
the  English  Elm  from  its  American  cousins.  There  are  a  number  of 
varieties  of  the  English  Elm  differing  in  habit  of  growth,  one  form 
having  corky   ridges.      We  have  described  the  most  familiar  type. 

DISTRIBUTION — The  English  Elm  is  not  confined  to  England  but 
like  the  English  sparrow  occurs  through  Europe.  It  is  not  native  to 
America  but  was  considerably  planted  formerly  in  the  eastern  sections 
especially  in  Boston  and  vicinity,  where  some  fine  old  specimens  are  to 
be  found.  The  trees  in  the  plate  were  taken  from  Boston  Common,  the 
two  at  the  right  being  English  Elms,  while  the  smaller  one,  indistinctly 
outlined  at  the  left,  is  an  American  White  Elm.  They  have  all  been 
rather  severely  pruned  on  account  of  insect  depredations. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  fine-grained,  durable  in  water,  not  liable  to 
crack  when  exposed  to  sun  or  weather;  used  in  Europe  for  ships'  blocks 
and  other  wooden  parts  of  rigging,  for  the  keels  of  ships,  for  pumps 
and  water  pipes,  piles  and  other  construction  under  water  and  for  the 
hubs  of  wheels. 


English  Elm 


326  TEEES  IN"  WINTER 


WHITE  ELM 

American  or  Water  Elm. 

Ulmus  americana  L. 


HABIT — A  larg-e  tree  50-110  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
1-S  ft.;  trunk  more  or  less  widely  buttressed,  dividing-  high  up  into 
a  number  of  large  limbs  which  grow  upward,  and  bend  gradually  and 
gracefully  outward,  dividing  repeatedly  to  form  a  broad,  round  or 
fiat-topped  inversely  conical  head  with  drooping  branchlets.  In  respect 
to  its  general  outline  various  types  of  the  Elm  have  been  distinguished 
as  the  "Vase  Form"  shown  in  the  photograph;  the  "Umbrella  Form" 
with  trunk  undivided  to  near  the  top  with  abruptly  spreading  branches 
forming  a  broad  shallow  arch;  the  "Plume  Form"  with  a  one-sided 
development  of  drooping  branches  from  a  tall  trunk;  the  "Oak  Form" 
with  more  tortuous  and  less  arching  limbs  forming  a  wide  rounded 
head;-  the  "Feathered  Form,"  a  modification  of  any  of  the  other  types 
with   the  trunk  fringed  with   short   branches. 

BARK — Dark  gray,  divided  by  irregular  longitudinal  fissures  into 
broad  flat-topped  ridges,  rather  firm  though  sometimes  in  very  old 
trees  coming  off  in  flakes;  the  bark  is  internally  stratified  by  thick 
conspicuovisly  whitish  layers  alternating  with  layers  of  a  dark  brown 
(see  plate  for  section  of  a  ridge  of  bark). 

TAVIGS — Slender,  smooth  or  slightly  or  sometimes  densely  downy, 
light  reddish-brown,  often  tinged  with'yellow,  very  slightly  mucilagin- 
ous if  chewed.     LENTICELS — pale,  scattered,  more  or  less  inconspicuous. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  semi-circular,  raised,  small  but 
conspicuous  because  of  contrast  in  color  between  the  light  corky  surface 
of  the  scar  and  the  darker  brown  of  the  twig.  STIPULE-SCARS — 
narrow,  minute,  sometimes  indistinct.  BUNDLE-SCARS — relatively  large, 
conspicuous,  typically  3  in  number  though  often  more  by  compound- 
ing of  single  scars,  generally  sunken  in  depressions  of  the  leaf-scar. 

BIDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  small,  often  placed  at  one 
side  of  leaf-scar,  ovate-conical,  pointed,  about  4  mm.  long,  slightly 
flattened  and  more  or  less  appressed  against  the  twig,  light  reddish- 
brown,  smooth  and  shining  or  slightly  pale-downy;  flower  buds  stouter, 
obovate,  appearing  as  if  stalked.  BUD-SCALES — about  6-9  to  a  leaf- 
bud  in  2  ranks,  increasing  in  size  from  without  inward,  generally 
with  darker  and  more  or  less  hairy-edged  margins. 

FRFIT — A  flat,  oval,  terminally  deeply  notched,  winged  fruit,  hairy- 
fringed  on  edges,  ripening  in  spring  and  scarcely  to  be  found  in  winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  White  Elm  differs  from  the  Slippery  Elm  in  the 
whitish  layers  of  the  bark,  the  absence  of  rusty  hairs  on  the  buds 
and  the  brownish  color  of  its  relatively  smooth  twigs.  From  the  Cork 
Elm  it  may  be  separated  by  its  habit  of  growth  and  by  the  absence. 
of  corky  ridges  on  the  twigs.  The  graceful  drooping  habit  of  growth 
of  its  branches  and  the  light  reddish  brown  of  its  buds  are  sufficient 
to   distinguish   the  American   from  the  English   Elm. 

DISTRIBt'TIOX — Low,  moist  ground,  thrives  especially  on  rich  inter- 
vales. Frequently  planted  as  a  street  and  shade  tree.  From  Cape  Breton 
to  Saskatchewan,  as  far  north  as  54°  30';  south  to  Florida;  west  to 
Dakota,  Nebraska,   Kansas   and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common,  most  abundant  in  central  and 
southern  portions;  New  Hampshire — common  from  the  southern  base  of 
the  T\^hite  Mountains  to  the  sea;  in  the  remaining  New  England  states — 
very  common,  attaining  its  highest  development  in  the  rich  alluvium 
of  the  Connecticut  river  valley. 

AA^OOn — Heavv,  hard,  strong,  tough,  diflicult  to  split,  coarse-grained, 
light  brown,  with  thick  somewhat  lighter  colored  sapwood.  largely 
used  for  the  hubs  of  wheels,  saddle-trees,  in  flooring  and  cooperage, 
and  in  boat  and  ship  building. 


^^  '^4^* 

H 

m 

Whiti^  Elm 


828 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


CORK  ELM 
Rock  Elm,  Hickory  Elm,  Northern  Cork  Elm. 

Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas. 
U.  Thomasi  Sarg. 


HABIT— A  large  tree  50-75  ft.  in  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
2-3  ft.,  in  southern  Michigan  .reaching  100  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  5  ft.;  trunk  slender,  erect,  generally  continuous  into  the 
crown,  developing  numerous  slender  rigid  branches  arising  at  a  wide 
angle,  those  below  generally  strongly  drooping  near  the  point  of  origin 
forming  a  narrow,  oblong,  round-topped  head  having  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  a  Hickory  with  short  twiggy,  generally  corky-ridged  branches 
in  the  interior  of  the  tree.  A  young  tree  showing  corky-ridged 
branchlets  and  an  old  tree  showing  a  more  characteristic  habit  though 
with  rather  long  trunk  for  the  open,  are  shown  in  the  plate. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  more  deeply  furrowed  than  in  the  White 
Elm,  becoming  with  age  flat-ridged,  resembling  the  latter  species. 

TAVIGS — More  or  less  downy,  resembling  twigs  of  White  Elm  but 
generally  developing  several  irregular  thick  corky  ridges  not  inter- 
rupted at  the  nodes. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  resembling  those  of  White  Elm 
but  with  bundle-scars  generally  more  than  3   (4-6). 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  similar  to  those  of  White 
Elm  but  longer  (about  5  mm.  long)  narrower,  sharp-pointed,  scarcely 
flattened,  generally  downy.  BUD-SCALES — with  darker  and  hairy-edged 
margins. 

FRriT — A  flat,  oval,  downy,  shallow-notched,  winged  fruit,  with 
hairy-fringed  margins  ripening  in  spring. 

COMPARISONS— In  Hickory-like  habit  the  Cork  Elm  differs  from 
all  our  other  Elms.  The  corky  ridges  on  the  twigs,  moreover,  occur 
on  no  other  native  New  England  Elm.  The  Winged  Elm  [Ulmus  alata 
Michx.],  a  native  of  the  south,  is  rarely  cultivated  in  southern  New 
England  but  is  not  hardy  north.  It  h  v.3  two  opposite  thin  corky  ridges 
which  are  abruptly  interrupted  at  the  nodes.  A  variety  of  the  English 
Elm  has  several  corky  ridges  to  the  twig  which  are  interrupted  at 
the  nodes.  The  Cork  Elm  differs  further  from  the  White  and  especially 
from  the  Slippery  Elm  in  its  narrower  buds. 

DISTRIBUTION — Dry,  gravelly  soils,  rich  soils,  river  banks.  Quebec 
through  Ontario;  south  to  Tennessee;  west  to  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  and  Missouri.  Occasionally  planted  as  an  ornamental  shade 
tree. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — not  reported;  New  Hampshire — rare  and 
extremely  local;  Meriden  and  one  or  two  other  places;  Vermont — rare, 
Bennington,  Pownal,  Knowlton,  Highgate.  comparatively  abundant  in 
Champlain  valley  and  westward;  Massachusetts — rare;  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island — not  reported   native. 

W^OOD — Heavy,  hard,  very  strong  and  tough,  close-grained  and  dif- 
ficvilt  to  split,  light  clear  brown,  often  tinged  with  red  with  thick, 
lighter  colored  sapwood;  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  many 
agricultural  implements,  for  the  framework  of  chairs,  hubs  of  wheels, 
railroad  ties,  the  sills  of  buildings  and  other  purposes  demanding 
toughness,  solidity  and  flexibility. 


Cork  Elm 


330  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


HACKBERRY 

Sugar  Berry,  Nettle  Tree,  False  Elm,  Hoop  Ash. 

Celtis  occidentalis  L. 


HABIT — A  small  to  medium  sized  tree  20-45  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  up  to  2  ft.,  reaching-  over  100  ft,  in  height  further  south; 
rather  variable  in  habit,  generally  forming  a  flattish  to  round-topped 
wide-spreading,  oblong  head  with  somewhat  the  aspect  of  an  Elm; 
branches  numerous,  horizontal  or  slightly  drooping,  more  or  less  zigzag; 
spray  slender;  berry-like  fruit  generally  persistent  throughout  the 
winter. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  on  trunk  and  older  limbs  roughened  with 
narrow  projecting  ridges  which  are  sometimes  reduced  to  warts  or  are 
almost  entirely  lacking. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  somewhat  zigzag,  brownish,  more  or  less  shining, 
more  or  less  downy;  wood  of  twigs  light  greenish  yellow  when 
moistened.  LENTICELS — scattered,  raised  and  more  or  less  elongated 
longitudinally.     PITH — white,   finely   chambered. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  semi-oval,  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  twig  on  a  projecting  cushion.  STIPULE-SCARS — present, 
elongated,  inconspicuous.  BUNDLE-SCARS — appearing  as  a  single  con- 
fluent  scar,   evidently   3    in   surface   section. 

BUDS — Small,  6mm.  or  generally  under  in  length,  downy,  chestnut 
brown,  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  flattened,  appressed;  terminal  bud  absent. 
Buds  frequently  transformed  into  insect  galls  (swellings  on  left  hand 
twig).  BUD-SCALES — 3-4  visible,  closely  overlapping  in  two  ranks  in- 
creasing in  size  from  without  inward,  longitudinally  striate  if  viewed 
toward  light,  generally  dark  margined. 

FRUIT — A  small  purplish,  more  or  less  spherical  stone-fruit  on  long, 
slender  stems.  7-10  mm.  in  diameter,  often  remaining  on  tree  throughout 
winter.        Flesh  edible,  sweet  as  is  also  the  seed  inside  the  stone. 

COMPARISONS — The  Hackberry  is  often  taken  for  an  Elm.  The  warts 
or  narrow  ridges  on  its  bark,  however,  and  its  chambered  pith  readily 
distinguish  it  from  the  Elm  if  the  berry-like  fruit  which  is  generally 
present  fails  to  be  found.  The  twigs  are  so  frequently  disfigured  by 
insect  galls  that  their  presence  might  almost  be  given  as  a  distinguishing 
character. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  divers  situations  and  soils;  woods,  river  banks, 
near  salt  marshes.  Province  of  Quebec  to  Lake  of  the  Woods,  occa- 
sional; south  to  the  Gulf  states;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — not  reported;  New  Hampshire — sparingly 
along  the  Connecticut  valley,  as  far  as  Wells  river;  Vermont — along 
Lake  Champlain,  not  common;  Norwich  and  Windsor  on  the  Connecti- 
cut; Massachusetts — occasional  throughout  the  state;  Connecticut — Oc- 
casional to  frequent,  especially  in  river  valleys  and  along  the  coast; 
Rhode  Island — common. 

W^OOD — Heavy,  rather  soft,  not  strong,  coarse-grained,  clear  light 
yellow,  with  thick  lighter  colored  sapwood;  largely  used  for  fencing 
and  the  manufacture  of  cheap  furniture. 


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Hackberry 


332  TREES  IN  WINTER 


RED  MULBERRY 

Morus  rubra  L. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  15-25  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of  8-15 
inches,  of  larger  size  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  basins;  trunk  short, 
dividing  into  a  number  of  stout  spreading  limbs  developing  a  compact, 
broad,  rounded  head  with  numerous  small  branches,  in  aspect  resembl- 
ing  an    Apple    tree. 

BARK — Dark  brown,  divided  into  irregular  longitudinal  plates  which 
tend  to  lift  at  the  ends  and  flake  off,  sometimes,  however,  not  con- 
spicuously flaky. 

TWIGS — Slender  though  rather  stouter  than  those  of  the  White  Mul- 
berry; somewhat  zigzag,  reddish  to  greenish-brown,  with  rather 
sweetish  taste,  cut  twig  showing  milky  juice.  LENTICELS — small, 
scattered,   inconspicuous. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  raised,  nearly  circular,  slightly 
hollowed  in  the  center.  STIPULE-SCARS— narrow.  BUNDLE-SCARS— 
raised  but  generally  less  distinctly  so  than  in  the  White  Mulberry, 
forming  a  closed   ring  or  irregularly  scattered  in   the   center. 

BIDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  ovate,  pointed,  about  6  mm. 
long,  stout  but  longer  than  broad,  not  at  all  or  but  slightly  flattened, 
divergent,  shining,  greenish  to  chestnut  brown.  BUD-SCALES — 2- 
ranked,  with  thin,  distinctly  darker  margins,   4-8  scales  visible. 

FRUIT — Red,  not  to   be  found  in  winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  is  most  readily  separated  from  the  White 
Mulberry  by  its  darker  twigs,  its  larger  shining,  greenish  to  chestnut 
brown  buds   with   dark-margined  bud-scales. 

DISTRIBUTION — Banks  of  rivers,  rich  woods.  Canadian  shore  of 
Lake  Erie;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Michigan,  South  Dakota,  and 
Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — A  rare  tree;  Maine — doubtfully  reported;  New 
Hampshire — Pemigewasset  valley.  White  Mountains;  Vermont — northern 
extremity  of  Lake  Champlain,  banks  of  the  Connecticut,  Pownal.  North 
Pownal;  Massachusetts — rare;  Connecticut — rare  or  occasional;  Bristol, 
Plainville,  North  Guilford,  East  Rock  and  Norwich;  Rhode  Island — no 
station  reported. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  rather  tough,  coarse-grained,  very 
durable,  light  orange  color  with  thick  lighter  colored  sapwood,  used 
largely  for  fencing,  in  cooperage  and  in  ship  and  boat  building. 


Eed  Mulberry 


334  TREES  IN  WINTER 


WHITE  MULBERRY 

Silkworm   Mulberry. 
Morus  alba  L. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  with  a  maximum  height  of  30-40  ft.,  and  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  less  than  3  ft.;  branching  low  with  wide-spreading 
limbs  forming  a  low  rounded  head  resembling  an  Apple  tree  somewhat 
in  habit,  but  with  a  characteristic  scraggly  twigginess  to  the  more  slen- 
der branchlets. 

BARK — Deeply  furrowed  into  long  more  or  less  wavy  light  yellowish 
brown  ridges. 

T^VIGS — Slender,  yellowish-green  to  brownish-gray,  for  the  most  part 
smooth,  round,  more  or  less  shining,  generally  zigzag,  swollen  at  the 
nodes,  short  branches  numerous,  often  arising  at  right  angles  to  ranks 
of  previous  years  and  producing  a  characteristic  scraggly  complex  of 
branchlets.  Twigs  slightly  sweetish  if  chewed;  bark  exuding  a  white 
milk  if  cut  on  warm  days  or  after  being  brought  into  a  warm  room. 
LiENTICELS — scattered,  similar  in  color  to  the  twigs  and  hence  incon- 
spicuous.    PITH — light,    rounded    in    cross-section. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  in  2  ranks,  small,  projecting,  oval  to  de- 
pressed circular.  STIPULE-SCARS — narrow,  inconspicuous.  BUNDLE 
SCARS — conspicuous,  3-10  projecting  above  leaf-scar,  irregularly 
scattered.  If  leaf-scar  is  surface-sectioned  leaf-traces  are  reduced 
to  3  in  number. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  small,  about  3  mm.  long, 
bright  reddish-brown,  roundish,  generally  about  as  broad  as  long,  sharp 
or  blunt  pointed,  somewhat  flattended  against  twigs,  often  set  oblique 
to  the  leaf-scar,  1  to  2  small  collateral  accessory  buds  sometimes- 
present.  BUD-SCALES — in  2  ranks,  about  5  scales  visible,  increasing 
in  size  from  below  upward,  margins  somewhat  finely  hairy. 

FRUIT — A    white,    juicy,    multiple    fruit    not    to    be    found    in  winter. 

COMPARISOIVS — The  projecting  bundle-scars  are  characteristic  of 
the  Mulberries;  for  points  of  distinction  from  the  Red  Mulberry  see 
under  this   species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Probably  a  native  of  China  where  its  leaves  have 
from  time  immemorial  furnished  food  for  silkworms,  introduced  into 
to  the  United  States  and  Canada  from  Ontario  to  Florida  and  naturalized 
more  or  less  throughout  New  England  appearing  by  roadsides  or  along 
fences  and  in  waste  places,  being  spread  by  birds  which  are  very 
fond  of  its  fruit.  Connecticut — occasional;  early  in  last  century  exten- 
sively planted  to  furnish  food  for  silkworms  and  many  large  trees  re- 
main about  farm  houses. 

AVOOD — Moderately  hard,  close-grained,  light  yel  owish-brown. 


White  Mulberry 


336  TREES  IN  WINTER 


CUCUMBER  TREE 
Mountain  Magnolia. 
Magnolia  acuminata  L. 


HABIT — When  fully  developed  a  tall  tree  up  to  90  ft,  in  height  with 
a  trunk  diameter  of  3-4  ft.  with  comparatively  slender  branches  widely 
spreading-  at  the  base,  ascending  above,  forming  a  broadly  conical  head; 
vvhen  young  having  somewhat  the  aspect  of  a  Pear  Tree. 

BARK — Grayish-brown   ridged  and   flaky. 

TWIGS — Slender,  brown,  shining,  smooth  or  at  times  slightly  downy, 
aromatic.  LENTICELS — scattered,  inconspicuous,  orange  colored.  PITH 
• — white. 

liEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  crescent  to,  U-shaped, 
elevated.  STIPULE-SCARS — distinct,  arising  from  upper  margins  of 
leaf-scar  and  encircling  twig.  BUNDLE-SCARS — large,  few  to  numer- 
ous,   scattered   in   an   imperfectly   double   row,   more    or  less   raised. 

BUDS — Thickly  covered  with  pale  silky  hairs;  lateral  buds  blunt, 
nearly  surrounded  by  leaf-scars,  about  %  the  size  of  terminal  bud; 
terminal  bud  oblong,  blunt,  10-20  mm.  long.  BUD-SCALES — valvate  and 
adhering  in  pairs,  with  rudimentary  leaf-scar  and  decurrent  ridge  at 
side  of  bud. 

FRUIT — An  ovate  to  oblong  cone,  often  curved,  generally  under  6  cm. 
long;  in  the  young  condition  supposedly  resembling  a  cucumber;  seed 
flattish   about    1   cm.   in  diameter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Cucumber  Tree  belongs  to  the  same  genus  as 
the  Umbrella  Tree,  but  differs  from  it  in  its  smaller,  blunt,  downy  buds, 
its  narrow  leaf-scars  and  its  scaly  ridged  bark;  from  the  Large-leaved 
Magnolia  by  the  smaller  size  of  its  buds,  its  narrow  leaf-scars  and  its 
scaly  ridged  bark;  from  the  Sweet  Bay  by  its  larger  size,  the  color 
of  its  twigs  and  the  character  of  its  bark.  For  character  of  the  Sweet 
Bay  see  p.  206.  The  Chinese  Magnolia  \_Magnolia  conspicua  Salisb.]  is  of- 
ten culitivated  and  has  downy  buds  resembling  those  of  the  Cucumber 
Tree,  The  buds,  however,  are  stouter,  the  bark  is  smooth  and  the 
species  is  more  shrubby  than   tree-like. 

DISTRIBUTION — Not  native  to  New  England;  the  hardiest  of  the 
Magnolias  and  extensively  planted  as  an  ornamental  shade  tree.  It 
.grows  wild  from  western  New  York  to  southern  Illinois  and  southward 
along  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  southern  Alabama. 

AVOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  close-grained  and  durable,  light 
yellow  brown,  with  thin  lighter  colored  often  nearly  white  sapwood  of 
usually  25-30  layers  of  annual  growth;  occasionally  manufactured  into 
lumber  used  for  flooring  and  cabinet  making. 


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Cucumber  Tree 


338  TREES  IN  WINTER 


UMBRELLA  TREE 
Elkwood. 

Magnolia  tripetala  L. 
M.  Umhrella  Lam. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  with  a  maximum  height  of  about  40  ft.  and  a 
trunk  diameter  of  li/4  feet,  in  New  England  generally  much  smaller; 
trunk  erect  or  inclined  with  wide-spreading  branches  which  generally 
bend  up  at  their  tips  forming  a  wide-spreading  irregular  open  head; 
at  times  with  several  stems  springing  from  near  the  base  of  the  trunk, 
forming  a   bushy   growth   around   the   main   stem. 

BARK — Light  gray,  smooth,  marked  with  small  excrescences,  fre- 
quently  wrinkled   and    lumpy   at   the   scars    of   branches. 

TAVIGS — Stout,  reddish  to  greenish-brown,  shining,  swollen  at  the 
base  of  each  year's  growth,  aromatic.  LENTICELS — conspicuous,  scat- 
tered pale  dots.     PITH — white,  with  minute  pink  dots. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous, 
oval,  slightly  raised,  mainly  clustered  at  swellings  along  the  twig. 
STIPULE-SCARS — distinct,  arising  from  the  side  of  leaf-scar  and  en- 
circling twig.  BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous,  irregularly  scattered,  often 
slightly  raised. 

BUDS — Lateral  buds  at  best  small,  conical,  divergent,  frequently 
undeveloped  or  showing  as  mere  bulges  of  the  bark;  terminal  buds 
large  up  to  5  cm.  long,  conical,  w^ith  curved  pointed  apex,  purple, 
with  a  bloom,  with  minute  pale  dots,  smooth  with  patch  of  rusty  hairs 
at  base  of  leaf  ridge.  BUD-SCALES — valvate  and  adhering  in  pairs 
corresponding  to  stipules,  each  pair  enclosing  in  succession  an  erect 
folded  downy  leaf,  the  stalk  of  which  is  united  with  the  next  inner  pair 
of  scales;  the  leaf  connected  with  the  outer  pair  of  scales  falls  off 
before  maturing,  leaving  a  rudimentary  scar  on  the  bud  with  a  decur- 
rent  ridge   corresponding  to   its  leaf-stalk. 

FRUIT — Ovate  to  oblong  cone,  6-10  cm.  long,  made  up  of  numerous 
follicles  which  split  open  in  the  fall  and  let  out  the  red  flatfish  seeds, 
which   are  about    1   cm.   in   diameter. 

COMPARISONS — For  comparisons  with  the  Tulip  Tree  see  this  species. 
The  Umbrella  Tree  differs  from  the  Cucumber  Tree,  the  Large-leaved 
Magnolia  and  the  Chinese  Magnolia  by  its  smooth  buds  and  from  the 
Sweet  Bay  by  the  size  and  color  of  its  twigs  and  buds. 

DISTRIBUTION — Not  native  to  New  England  but  extensively  culti- 
vated as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  grows  wild  in  the  Appalachian 
mountain  region  from  the  valley  of  the  Susquehanna  river,  Pennsyl- 
vania to   southern   Alabama. 

"WOOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  not  strong,  light  brown,  with 
creamy  white  sapwood  of  35-40  layers  of  annual  growth. 


Umbrella  Treu 


340  TKEES  IN  WINTER 

TULIP  TREE 
Whitewood,  Yellow  Poplar. 

Liriodendron  Tulipifera  L. 


HABIT — A  g-ood  sized  tree  50-70  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  2-3  ft.,  in  the  Ohio  basin  reaching  an  exceptional  height  of  nearly 
200  ft.;  trunk  tall,  straight,*  continuous  into  the  crown  and  giving 
off  comparatively  short,  horizontal,  declined  or  slightly  ascending 
branches  with  upcurved  tips,  forming  in  young  trees  a  pyramidal  and  in 
older  trees  an  oblong  head.  Light  yellow  fruiting'  cones  or  at  least 
their  axes  conspicuous  at  ends  of  twigs. 

BARK — Somewhat  resembling  bark  of  White  Ash  but  generally 
lighter,  with  ridges  longer  and  furrows  shallower  and  more  rounded 
and  less  inclined  to  form  diamond-shaped  patches;  inner  bark  bitter; 
young  bark  ashy-gray  and  smooth,  becoming  dark  with  light  colored 
seams. 

TAVIGS — Slender  to  somewhat  stout,  reddish-brown,  smooth  and  shin- 
ing with  more  or  less  evident  bloom,  with  an  agreeable  aromatic 
smell  when  broken  but  with  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  not  mucilaginous; 
on  vigorous  shoots  often  branching  the  first  season.  LENTICELS — con- 
spicuous pale  dots.  PITH- — white  with  rather  inconspicuous  transverse 
woody  partitions  through  the  ground-mass. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous, 
elevated,  circular  or  slightly  flattened  at  the  top.  STIPULE-SCARS — ■ 
conspicuous,  arising  from  top  of  leaf-scar,  encircling  twig.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — small,  numerous,  scattered  like  perforations  in  a  sieve. 

BITDS — Dark  reddish-brown,  covered  with  a  bloom,  white-dotted, 
blunt,  flattish;  lateral  buds  small,  on  vigorous  twigs  superposed  acces- 
sory buds  sometimes  present  which  may  be  stalked  or  develop  into 
branches  the  first  season;  terminal  buds  large  5-20  mm.  long,  oblong, 
blunt.  BUD-SCALES — spoon-shaped,  smooth,  valvate  in  pairs  corre- 
sponding to  stipules,  each  pair  enclosing  in  succession  a  long-stalked, 
smooth,  reflexed  and  folded  leaf  with  its  2  scale-like  stipules;  leaf- 
stalk attached  only  at  its  base,  hence  scar  of  rudimentary  leaf  when 
present  located  at  base  of  bud. 

FRUIT — A  light  brown  cone  made  up  of  winged  seed-like  portions, 
20-40  mm.  long  which  remain  aggregated  together  into  the  winter  but 
which  are  gradually  dropped  leaving  the  persistent  terminal  axis. 

COMPARISONS — The  Magpolias  to  which  the  Tulip  Tree  is  botani- 
cally  related  have  likewise  aromatic  twigs  with  circular  stipule-scars. 
Their  leaf-scars,  however,  are  not  circular;  their  buds  are  pointed  or 
hairy  and  the  scar  of  the  rudimentary  leaf  is  considerably  above  base 
of  bud.  The  light  brown  fruiting  cones  from  which  the  winged  seed- 
like bodies  have  partially  fallen  are  generally  to  be  found  on  the  Tulip 
Tree  and  are  distinctive  for  this  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Prefers  a  rich,  loamy,  moist  soil.  Is  sometimes 
planted  as  an  ornamental  tree.  From  New  England  south  to  the  Gulf 
states;  west  to  Wisconsin;  occasional  in  the  eastern  sections  of  Missouri 
and  Arkansas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Vermont — valley  of  the  Hoosac  River  in  the 
southwestern  corner  of  the  state;  Massachusetts — frequent  in  the  Con- 
necticut river  valley  and  westward;  reported  as  far  east  as  Douglas, 
southeastern  corner  of  Worcester  county;  Connecticut — occasional,  local 
or  frequent;   Rhode  Island — frequent. 

W^OOD — Light,  soft,  brittle  not  strong,  easily  worked,  light  yellow  or 
brown,  with  thin  creamy  white  sapwood;  largely  manufactured  into 
lumber  generally  under  the  name  of  "Whitewood";  used  in  construction, 
the  interior  finish  of  houses,  boat  building  and  for  shingles,  brooms  and 
woodenware.  The  intensely  acrid  bitter  inner  bark,  especially  of  the 
root,  is  used  domestically  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant  and  hydrochlorate 
of  tulipiferine,  an  alkaloid,  separated  from  the  bark,  possesses  the 
property    of   stimulating   the   heart. 


TuLir  Tree 


342  TREES  IN  WINTER 


SASSAFRAS 


Sassafras  variifoliiim  (Salisb.)  Kuntze. 
IS.  officinale  Nees  &  Eberm.  ;   S.  Sassafras  Karst. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  at  times  reaching  40-50  ft.  in  height,  with 
a  trunk  diameter  of  2-4  ft.;  at  the  north  smaller  and  often  shrubby; 
in  the  southern  states  reaching  a  height  of  100  ft.;  branches  numerous, 
stout,  more  or  less  contorted,  often  distinctly  in  yearly  whorls,  horizontal 
or  forming  a  broad  angle  with  the  trunk,  subdividing  to  produce  a 
dense  bushy  spray  and  forming  a  flat-topped  or  slightly  rounded 
oblong  head  (upper  photograph).  Limbs  brittle  and  frequently  lost 
through  ice  storms  or  other  injuries,  giving  the  tree  a  battered  appear- 
ance as  shown  in  lower  photograph.  The  tree  sprouts  abundantly 
from  the  roots,  often  surrounding  itself  with  a  thicket  of  saplings  (see 
those   at   right   in    lower   picture). 

BARK — Reddish  brown,  deeply  furrowed  even  in  comparatively  young 
trees  into  broad  flat  ridges  with  narrow  horizontal  cracks  running  part 
way  around  the  trunk  and  dividing  the  ridges  into  short  blocks,  which 
are  oblong  or  in  the  form  of  erect  or  inverted  Y's  and  Vs. 

TWIGS — Slender  to  stout,  bright  yellowish-green,  often  reddish  where 
exposed  to  light,  smooth  and  shining  or  somewhat  downy;  internodes 
very  unequal;  rapidly  grown  shoots  freely  branching  the  first  season, 
the  branches  exceeding  the  main  axis;  twigs  spicy-aromatic  to  both 
smell  and  taste,  mucilaginous  if  chewed.  LENTICELS — scattered,  very 
inconspicuous. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  raised,  semi- 
elliptical,  with  elevated  margins.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — single,    forming   horizontal    line. 

BUDS — Green,  more  or  less  tinged  with  red  toward  tip;  lateral  buds 
small,  divergent;  terminal  buds  large,  5-10  mm.  long,  ovate,  pointed; 
flower  buds  terminal.  BUD-SCALES — with  thickened  veins;  generally 
3  narrower,  thicker,  shorter  scales  surrounding  terminal   bud. 

FRFIT — Generally  scanty,  a  blue  drupe  falling  early.  The  Sassafras 
is    generally    dioecious. 

C03IPARIS0IVS — Its  bright  green  aromatic  mucilaginous  twigs  which 
form  branches  the  first  season  surpassing  the  main  axis,  its  single 
bundle-scar  and  the  transverse  cracking  of  the  ridges  of  the  bark 
render  the  Sassafras  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  our  native  trees  in 
winter.     It  is  scarcely  to  be  confused  with  any  other  form. 

DISTRIBVTIOX — In  various  soils  and  situations;  sandy  or  rich  woods, 
along  the  borders  of  peaty  swamps,  thickets  and  fence  rows.  Provinces 
of  Quebec  and  Ontario;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Michigan,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — this  tree  grows  not  beyond  Black  Point 
(Scarboro,  Cumberland  county)  eastward;  (Josselyn's  New  England 
Rarities,  1672);  not  reported  again  by  botanists  for  more  than  two 
hundred  years;  rediscovered  at  Wells  in  1895  and  North  Berwick  in 
1896;  New  Hampshire — lower  Merrimac  valley,  eastward  to  the  coast 
and  along  the  Connecticut  valley  to  Bellows  Falls;  Vermont — occasional 
south  of  the  center;  Pownal;  Hartland  and  Brattleboro;  Vernon;  Massa- 
chusetts— common  especially  in  the  eastern  sections;  Connecticut  and 
Rhode    Island — common. 

WOOD — Soft,  weak,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  very  durable  in  the  soil, 
aromatic,  dull  orange-brown,  with  thin  light  j^ellow  sapwood  of  7-8 
layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  for  fence-posts  and  rails  and  in 
the  construction  of  light  boats,  ox-yokes,  and  in  cooperage.  The  roots 
and  especially  their  bark  are  a  mild  aromatic  stimulant,  and  oil  of 
sassafras  used  to  perfume  soaps,  flavor  candy,  etc.,  and  as  an  ingredient 
in  liniment  is  distilled  from  them. 


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Sassafras 


344  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


WITCH  HAZEL 

Hamamelis  virginiaiia  L. 


HABIT — A  larg-e  shrub  or  small  tree  occasionally  25-30  ft.  in  heig-ht 
with  a  trunk  diameter  of  10-14  inches,  with  short  trunk,  spreading- 
crooked  branches  with  conspicuous  persistent  fruiting-  capsules,  form- 
ing a  broad  open  head. 

BARK — Light  brown,  more  or  less  mottled,  generally  smooth  or 
minutely  scaly. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  light  orange  brown,  smooth  and  shining,  or 
downy  especially  toward  apex,  more  or  less  zigzag-.  LENTICELS — few, 
scattered,  whitish  dots. 

LiEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  inversely  triangular.  STI- 
PULE-SCARS— distinct,  narrow,  oblong-,  somewhat  separate  from  leaf- 
scar.  BUNDLE-SCARS — Whitish  in  conspicuous  contrast  to  dark  brown 
surface  of  leaf-scar,  generally  3  and  separate  or  these  may  be  com- 
pounded or  more  or  less  confluent. 

BUDS — Stalked,  flattish,  slightly  curved,  densely  downy  with  short, 
fine  light  to  dark  olive  brown  hairs;  terminal  bud  larg-er  than  laterals, 
5-12  mm.  long.  BUD-SCALES — an  outer  pair  of  relatively  thin  scales 
corresponding  to  stipules  and  often  represented  by  only  a  scar  accom- 
panying the  outermost  thick  downy  laterally  folded  undeveloped  leaf, 
which  with  smaller  leaves  within  serves  the  function  of  bud  scales.  The 
bud  is  therefore  essentially  naked. 

FRUIT — Produced  in  abundance,  a  downy  2-chambered  capsule  about 
15  mm.  long,  surrounded  by  the  persistent  calyx,  discharging  in  autumn 
4  shining,  brown,  oblong  seeds  and  remaining  widely  gaping  on  the 
tree  throughout  winter  (see  lower  part  of  twig-  picture).  The  plant 
produces  flowers  in  the  autumn  at  the  same  time  with  the  ripening  of 
the  fruit,  and  the  remains  of  the  flowers,  showing  the  4  downy  sepals 
with  their  enclosing  bracts,  are  to  be  found  in  clusters  on  the  recent 
twigs    (upper   part    of   twig   picture). 

COMPARISONS — In  habitat  and  in  its  stalked  buds  the  Witch  Hazel 
resembles  the  Alders.  The  buds  of  the  latter,  however,  are  essentially 
smooth  or  at  most  fine-downy,  not  hairy  and  their  fruit  is  a  woody 
cone  not   a  capsule. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  moist  or  wet  often  rocky  places.  Nova  Scotia  to 
Ontario  and  Minnesota;  south  to  Florida  and  Texas;  west  to  eastern 
Nebraska. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND— Common  throughout. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  very  close-grained,  light  brown  tinged  with  red, 
with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood  of  30-40  layers  of  annual  growth.  The 
bark  is  slightly  astringent  and  though  not  known  to  have  essential 
properties  is  largely  used  in  the  form  of  fluid  extracts  and  decoctions 
as  a  popular  application  for  sprains  and  bruises,  Pond's  Extract  being 
made  by  distilling-  the  bark  in  dilute  alcohol.  Probably  equally 
eflficacious  is  the  use  of  the  twigs  as  divining  rods  to  locate  water  and 
minerals. 


Witch  Hazel 


346  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


SWEET  GUM 
Bilsted,  Red  Gum,  Alligator-wood,  Liquidambar. 

— Liquidambar  Styraciflua  L. 


HABIT — A  tree  40-60  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  up  to  2  ft., 
reaching-  150  ft.  in  height  and  a  trunk  diameter  af  3-5  ft.  in  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Ohio  valleys;  branches  slender,  regular  and  spreading,  form- 
ing a  very  symmetrical  tree,  when  young  (right  hand  tree  in  plate) 
narrowly  oblong-conical,  with  age  (left  hand  tree  in  plate)  becoming 
broader  and  rounded  ovate,  generally  showing  persistent  stalked 
spherical   fruits. 

BARK — Grayish  brown,  deeply  furrowed  into  broad  more  or  less 
flaky  ridges. 

TWIGS — Mediumly  stout  to  slender,  light  to  dark  reddish  to  yellowish- 
brown,  rounded  or  often  somewhat  angled,  smooth  and  shiny  or  seldom 
slightly  hairy;  generally  developing  the  second  season  3-4  parallel 
corky  ridges  on  the  upper  side  of  horizontal  branchlets  and  on  all 
sides  of  vertical  branchlets  (lower  twig  figure).  LENTICELS — scat- 
tered, dark.     PITH — wide,  more  or  less  5-pointed,   star-shaped. 

LiEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  broadly  crescent-shaped 
to  inversely  triangTn?rr*  raised.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS— 3,  each  a  circular  white  ring  with  dark  center  conspicuous 
against  the  dark  surface  of  leaf-scar. 

BUDS — Ovate  to  conical,  pointed,  shiny,  reddish-brown,  more  or  less 
fragrant  when  crushed,  lateral  buds  divergent,  on  rapidly  grown  shoots 
sometimes  stalked  or  developing  into  branches  the  first  season  and 
then  frequently  with  a  pair  of  collateral  accessory  buds  at  a  node; 
terminal  buds  exceeding  the  laterals,  5-10  mm.  long.  BUD-SCALES — 
ovate,  fine-downy  on  the  margins,  rounded  on  the  back,  generally  with 
a  short  abrupt  point  at  the  apex. 

FRVIT — A  long-stalked  spherical  spiny  aggregate  of  ovaries,  2-4  cm. 
in  diameter  hanging  on  the  tree  through  the  winter;  the  mature  seeds 
falling  in  autumn  leaving  many  minute  abortive  seeds  in  the  ovaries. 

C03IPARIS0IVS — The  corky  ridges  on  the  twigs  of  the  Sweet  Gum  are 
striking  distinctive  characters  which  are  found  also  in  the  Cork  Elm 
and  the  Bur  Oak.  The  Elm,  however,  has  2-ranked  leaf-scars  and 
the  buds  of  the  Oak  are  bunched  at  the  twig  ends;  neither  are  shiny 
reddish-brown  between  the  ridges.  The  corky  ridges  may  be  but 
sparingly  developed  upon  some  trees  and  may  even  fail  entirely.  The 
spiny  fruits  which  persist  through  winter  form  the  best  single  dis- 
tinctive character. 

DISTRIBUTION — Low,  wet  soils,  swamps,  moist  woods,  somewhat 
cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Connecticut;  south  to  Florida;  west 
to  Missouri  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Growing  native  only  in  Connecticut,  south  Nor- 
walk  and  occasional  or  frequent  westward  near  the  shores  of  the 
Sound. 

AVOOD — Heavy,  hard,  straight,  close-grained,  not  strong,  bright  brown 
tinged  with  red,  with  thin  almost  white  sapwood  of  60-70  layers  of 
annual  growth,  inclined  to  warp  and  shrink  badly;  used  for  the  outside 
finish  of  houses,  in  cabinet  making,  for  street  pavement,  wooden  dishes 
and  fruit  boxes.  The  resinous  exudation  from  the  stems  (liquidambar), 
which  is  more  marked  in  trees  grown  in  the  south,  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  chewing  gum. 


Sweet  Gum 


348  TREES  IN  WINTER 


SYCAMORE 

Buttonwood,  Buttonball,  Plane  Tree. 
Platanus  occidentalis  L. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  50-100  ft.  In  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
3-8  ft.,  in  the  bottom  lands  of  tlie  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys 
reaching  occasionally  a  height  of  170  ft.  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
10-11  ft.,  the  largest  tree  of  the  New  England  forest;  with  an  erect 
or  often  declined  trunk  very  gradually  tapering  and  continuous  into 
the  top  (see  habit  picture)  or  branched  near  the  base  into  two  or 
three  secondary  trunks  (see  bark  picture)  forming  an  open,  irregular 
or  rounded  wide-spreading  head;  branchlets  scraggly,  often  in  tufts 
with  dead  twigs  not  infrequent.      (See  low  cross-branch  in  bark  picture). 

BARK — Dark  brown,  at  the  base  of  older  trunks  shallowly  furrowed 
into  broad  ridges  which  are  broken  into  small  oblong  thick  plate-like 
scales;  higher  up  on  the  trunk  peeling  off  in  large  thin  plates,  exposing 
conspicuous  areas  of  the  whitish,  yellowish  or  greenish  inner  bark. 

TWIGS — Slender,  rather  shiny,  smooth,  yellowish-brown,  generally 
zigzag,  swollen  at  the  nodes,  rounded  or  with  decurrent  ridges  from 
the  bundle-scars;  medullary  rays  conspicuous  in  sectioned  twig. 
LENTICELS— pale,  minute.     PITH— thick. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  generally  2-ranked,  sometimes  appearing 
more  ranked;  narrow,  projecting,  nearlv  surrounding  the  bud,  more  or 
less  swollen  at  the  bundle-scars.  STIPULE-SCARS — encircling  twig. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous,  dark,  generally  raised,  5-10  or  more  in 
single  curved  line. 

BFDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  generally  large,  conical, 
5-10  mm.  long,  occasionally  shorter,  blunt-pointed,  smooth,  dark  reddish- 
brown,  divergent.  BUD-SCALES — a  single  scale  visible,  forming  a  cap 
to  the  bud,  second  scale  green,  gummy,  innermost  scale  covered  with 
long  rusty  hairs. 

FRUIT — Spherical  heads  2.5-4  cm.  in  diameter,  on  long  stalks  mostly 
solitary  or  seldom  in  2's,  composed  of  small  hairy  1-seeded  nutlets. 
The  heads  hang  on  the  tree  till  spring. 

COMPARISONS — The  native  Sycamore  [Platamis  occidentaUsI  is  closely 
related  to  the  Oriental  Sycamore  \_Platanns  orientaUs  L.]  which  is 
extensively  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  bears  its  fruiting  heads 
singly  or  rarely  in  2's.  while  the  Oriental  Sycamore  has  its  fruiting 
heads  in  clusters  of  2-4.  The  whitewashed  appearance  of  the  upper 
limbs,  the  single  cap-like  scale  of  its  bud,  which  is  nearly  surrounded 
by  the  leaf-scar,  present  characters  which  prevent  the  Sycamores  from 
being   confused   with    any   other   trees. 

DISTRIBUTION — Near  streams,  river  bottoms,  and  low,  damp  woods; 
sometimes  in  dryer  places.  Ontario;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Min- 
nesota, Nebraska,   Kansas   and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — apparently  restricted  to  York  county; 
New  Hampshire — Merrimac  valley  towards  the  coast;  along  the  Con- 
necticut as  far  as  Walpole;  Vermont — scattering  along  the  river  shores, 
quite  abundant  along  the  Hoosac  in  Pownal;  Massachusetts — occa- 
sional;  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — rather  common. 

AVOOD — Reddish-brown  with  light  somewhat  yellowish  sapwood. 
heavy,  tough,  hard,  not  very  strong,  coarse-grained,  difficult  to  split  and 
work;  is  used  in  manufacture  of  tobacco  boxes,  crates,  butchers'  blocks, 
ox-yokes  and  when  cut  quartering  is  used  for  inside  finishing  of 
buildings  and  for  furnture. 


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k 

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Sycamore 


350  TREES  IN  WINTER 


PEAR 

Pyrus  communis  L. 


HABIT — A'  tree  sometimes  75  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
2  ft.  or  more,  dimensions  generally  smaller;  trunk  erect,  more  or  less 
continuous  into  the  head,  with  ascending  branches  and  numerous  stubby 
branchlets  forming  an   upright  pyramidal  head. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  on  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  becom- 
ing with  age  longitudinally  fissured  into  flat-topped  ridges  which  are 
further  broken  by  transverse  fissures  into  oblong  scales. 

TAVIGS — Stout,  smooth  or  but  slightly  downy,  yellowish-green  or 
sometimes  with  tinge  of  brown,  without  characteristic  taste;  short 
sharp-pointed  branches  not  infrequently  present;  stubby,  branched 
slow-growing  fruit  spurs  abundant,  with  prominent  fruit-scars.  LEN- 
TICELS — scattered,   pale,   more  or  less   conspicuous. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  crescent-shaped, 
raised,  narrow,  generally  several  times  as  broad  as  high.  STIPULE- 
SCARS — absent.     BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,   often   indistinct. 

BUDS — Conical,  sharp-pointed,  smooth  or  but  slightly  hairy;  terminal 
bud  about  S  mm.  or  less  in  length,  lateral  buds  smaller,  generally 
divergent  and  not  flattened  or  at  times  on  vigorous  shoots  both  flattened 
and  appressed.  BUD-SCALES — ovate,  generally  with  conspicuous  gray- 
ish skin  on  surface,  generally  4  or  more  visible  scales  to  lateral  buds, 
more  to  terminal  bud. 

FRUIT — A  large  fleshy  pome. 

COMPARISONS — The  Pear  Tree  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Apple 
by  its  erect  habit  of  growth.  The  twig  characters  vary  somewhat 
among  the  different  varieties  but  in  general  the  twigs  of  the  Pear 
differ  from  those  of  the  Apple  in  being  smooth,  generally  of  a  yellow- 
ish-green color,  devoid  of  a  licorice-like  taste  and  in  having  pointed, 
mostly  divergent  buds,  the  scales  of  which  are  more  or  less  covered 
with   a  grayish   skin. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  the  Old  World  cultivated  in  this  country 
for  its  fruit  and  escaped  from  cultivation  in  waste  places. 

WOOD — Hard,  close-grained,  reddish-brown;  used  for  drawing  instru- 
ments, for  tools,  in  imitation  of  ebony  and  by  the  wood  engraver; 


Pear 


352  TREES  IN  WINTER 


APPLE 

Pyrus  Malus  L. 
Malus  Malus  (L.)  Britton. 


HABIT — A  tree  reaching  30-50  ft.  in  height  and  a  trunk  diameter  of 
2-3  ft.;  trunk  short  with  wide-spreading  limbs  forming  a  broad  round- 
stopped  head  of  familiar  and  very  characteristic  habit. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,    scaling   off   in   thin,    brittle,    flaky   plates. 

TW^IGS— Stout,  pale-woolly,  at  least  toward  the  apex,  mostly.reddish- 
brown,  rarely  yellowish,  shining  where  free  from  wool,  with  character- 
istically slightly  bitter  and  licorice-like  taste  when  chewed;  short, 
stubby,  contorted  fruit-spurs  abundantly  present.  LENTICELS — scat- 
tered, pale,   more   or  less  conspicuous.     PITH — whitish. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  narrow,  crescent- 
shaped,  raised.  STIPULE-SCARS— absent.  BUNDLE- SCARS— 3,  often 
indistinct. 

BUDS — Ovate,  blunt,  bright,  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  densely 
covered  with  pale  wool;  terminal  bud  8  mm.  or  less  long,  lateral  buds 
smaller,  often  triangular,  flattened  and  appressed  against  twig.  BUD- 
SCALES — ovate,  about  3  scales  visible  to  lateral  bud,  more  to  terminal 
bud. 

FRUIT — A  large  fleshy  pome. 

COMPARISONS — The  Apple  Tree  resembles  the  Pear  but  is  readily 
distinguished  from  this  species  by  its  low  spreading  habit  of  growth. 
The  numerous  varieties  differ  somewhat  in  the  twig  characters,  some 
with  twigs  and  buds  nearly  smooth,  others  with  yellowish  rather  than 
reddish-brown  twigs.  The  licorice-like  taste  of  the  twigs  seems  to  be 
a  constant  character  for  the  Apple.  Among  its  distinguishing  characters 
which  in  the  main  hold  good,  may  be  mentioned  the  pale  wool  on  the 
twigs  and  buds,  the  flat  appressed  lateral  buds  and  the  reddish-brown 
color  of  the  twigs. 

DISTRIBUTION— A  native  of  the  Old  World,  cultivated  in  this 
country  for  its  fruit  and  frequently  escaped  from  cultivation  in  waste 
places  when  it  assumes  a  bushier  habit  of  growth,  with  smaller  twigs 
frequently  beset  with  short  sharp-pointed  thorn-like  branches. 

WOOD — Hard,  tough,  close-grained,  reddish-brown,  used  for  tool 
handles,  shoemakers'  lasts,  by  the  cabinet  maker  and  esteemed  as 
a  fuel  in  open  grate  fires. 


Apple 


354  TREES  IN  WINTER 


AMERICAN  MOUNTAIN  ASH 
Rowan  or  Service  Tree. 

Pyrus  americana  (Marsh.)  DC. 
Sorbus  amei'icana  Marsh. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  15-20  ft.  hig-h  or  in  northern  New 
Eng-land  reaching  a  height  of  25-30  ft.  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  12-15 
inches,  with  slender  spreading-  branches  forming  a  rather  narrow 
round-topped  head. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  smooth  or  on  older  trees  somewhat  roughish, 

TAVIGS — Stout,  smooth,  reddish  to  grayish-brown.  LENTICELS — con- 
spicuous, large,  pale,  oblong-,  remotely  scattered.  PITH — broad,  slightly 
reddish- brown. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  crescent  to 
broadly  U  or  V-shaped,  raised  on  a  projection  darker  than  the  twig. 
STIPULE-SCARS— absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — regularly  5,  often  raised, 
arranged  in  a  single  curved  line. 

BUDS — Terminal  buds  large,  about  13  mm.  long,  ovate  to  broadly 
conical,  with  a  curved  pointed  apex,  dark  purplish-red,  gummy  and 
smooth  or  with  few  hairs  on  the  surface,  densely  woolly  within;  lateral 
buds  smaller,  flattened  and  appressed.  BUD-SCALES — 2-3  visible  to 
terminal  bud,  1-2  to  lateral  bud. 

FRUIT — Berry-like,  bright  red,  strong-ly  acid,  round,  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  in  flat-topped  clusters  persistent  through  the  winter. 

COMPARISOIVS — A  larger  fruited  form,  the  Western  Mountain  Ash 
[Pyrus  sitchensis  (Roem. )  Piper],  is  considered  by  some  a  distinct 
species  but  by  others  only  a  variety  of  the  type  described.  It  is  more 
northerly  and  westerly  in  its  distribution.  The  European  Mountain 
Ash  [Pyrus  Aucuparia  (L.)  Ehrh.]  with  many  horticultural  forms  is 
more  frequently  cultivated  than  the  American  species  and  has  escaped 
from  cultivation  in  some  places.  It  may  be  distinguished  by  the  white 
hairy  down  present  especially  on  the  upper  half  of  the  terminal  bud 
and  by  the  larger  fruits  (about  10  mm.  broad)  arrang-ed  in  a  rather 
round-topped  cluster.  The  habit,  bark,  fruit  and  lower  twig  photo- 
graphs   are    of    the    European    species. 

DISTRIBUTION — River  banks,  cool  woods,  swamps  and  mountains, 
Newfoundland  to  Manitoba;  south,  in  cold  swamps  and  along  the  moun- 
tains to  North  Carolina;  west  to  Michigan  and  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common;  New  Hampshire — common 
along  the  watersheds  of  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac  rivers  and  on 
the  slopes  of  the  White  Mountains;  Vermont — abundant  far  up  the 
slopes  of  the  Green  mountains;  Massachusetts — Graylock,  Wachusett, 
Watatic,  and  other  mountainous  regions;  rare  eastward;  Connecticut — 
rare  or  local;  swamps  and  about  ponds  or  sometimes  on  dry  ledges  or 
in  rocky  woods;  Staitord,  Durham  and  Meriden,  Granby,  Winchester,  Nor- 
folk, Canaan,  Salisbury,  Kent;  Rhode  Island — occasional  in  the  north- 
ern sections. 

The  variety  (Pyrus  sitchensis)  the  Western  Mountain  Ash,  has  the  fol- 
lowing distribution — Mountain  slopes,  cool  woods,  along  the  shores  of 
rivers  and  ponds,  often  associated  with  Pyrxis  arnericana,  but  climbing 
higher  up  the  mountains.  From  Labrador  and  Nova  Scotia  west  to  the 
Rocky  mountains,  then  north\yard  along  the  mountain  ranges  to  Alaska. 
In  New  England,  confined  to  Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont. 

WOOD — Close-grained,  light,  soft  and  weak,  pale  brown  with  light- 
er colored  sapwood  oi  15-20  layers  of  annual  growth;  of  little  economic 
value.     The  very  astringent  bark  and  berries  are  employed  medicinally. 


Mountain  Ash 


356  TREES  IN  WINTER 


QUINCE 

Cydonia  vulgaris  Pers. 
Pyrus  Cydonia  L. 


HABIT — A  low  bushy  strag-gling  rounded  shrub  or  small  tree  rarely- 
exceeding-  15  ft.  in  height  with  crooked  distorted  branches. 

BARK — Dark  gray,  finely  streaked,  becoming  with  age  more  or  less 
roughened    with    large   flaky    scales. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  dark  reddish-brown,  often  with  tinge  of  green;  in 
protected  places  and  especially  toward  the  tip  of  the  twig  generally 
more  or  less  densely  covered  with  pale  wool,  bright-shining  where 
smooth;  mostly  tasteless.  LENTICELS — small,  numerous,  becoming  con- 
spicuous brownish  dots  on  older  growth.     PITH — narrow,  greenish. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  crescent-shaped 
to  inversely  triangular,  raised'  on  a  somewhat  shrivelled  projection 
slightly  darker  than  the  twig  and  containing  at  its  outer  edges  the 
roundish,  rather  inconspicuous  stipule-scars  at  either  side  of  the  leaf- 
scar.      BUNDLE-SCARS — 3. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  minute,  about  3  mm.  or 
often  less  in  length,  ovate,  blunt,  flattened  and  appressed  against 
twig;  smoothish  or  somewhat  hairy  at  base,  with  dense  pale-rusty  hairs 
within  showing  through  at  apex.  BUD-SCALES — not  easily  distin- 
guished, about  2  visible,  reddish-brown  to  light  reddish,  breaking  away 
at  the  tip. 

FRUIT — A  large,  firm,  fleshy,  downy   pome. 

COMPARISONS — The  twigs  and  buds  of  the  Quince  resemble  some- 
what those  of  the  Apple  but  the  twigs  are  much  more  slender  and 
the  buds  show  a  distinctive  tuft  of  rusty  hairs.  The  bushy  habit  of 
growth  further  will  distinguish  the  Quince  from  the  other  cultivated 
fruit  trees. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  tree  native  of  Europe,  cultivated  for  the  fruit  and 
escaped  to  a  slight  extent  in  some  localities. 

W'OOD — The  wood  is  of  no  commercial  importance.  The  fruit  is 
valued  for  preserving.  The  raw  fruit  and  mucilaginous  seed  are  used 
In  domestic  medicinal  practice. 


Quince 


358  TKEES  IN  WINl^ER 


SHAD  BUSH 
Service  Berry,  Shadblow,  Juneberry. 

Amelanchier  canadensis  (L.)  Medic. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  10-25  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  6-10  inches,  sometimes  reaching  a  height  of  40  ft.  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  li^  ft.;  of  variable  habit,  at  times  a  shrub  with  many 
stems  in  a  clump  (see  plate,  picture  at  right)  or  again  a  symmetrical 
tree  with  a  single  trunk  with  many  small  limbs  and  fine  branchlets 
forming  an  oblong  or  rather  wide-spreading  round-topped  head  (see 
plate). 

BARK — Essentially  smooth,  grayish-brown,  older  trunks  with  narrow 
longitudinal  fissures  separating  off  shallow  flat  ridges  which  are  some- 
what scaly  at  base  of  trunk;  younger  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  often 
characteristically   streaked  with  darker  longitudinal   lines    (see  plate). 

TWIGS — Slender,  grayish,  olive-green  to  reddish-brown  often  covered 
with  a  gray  skin,  generally  smooth,  with  slight  taste  of  bitter  almonds. 
LiENTICELS — scattered  or  numerous,  pale,  minute  dots.  PITH — 
greenish  with   irregular  edges. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked  or  at  times  appearing  more  than 
2-ranked,  a  raised  very  narrow  flattened  V-shaped  line  swollen  at  the 
bundle-scars,  often  with  short  somewhat  decurrent  ridges  at  outer 
edges.      STIPULE-SCARS — absent.       BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,   rather  large. 

BUDS — Terminal  buds  present,  long,  narrow,  7-12  mm.  long  and  3-4 
times  as  long  as  broad,  narrowly  ovate  to  conical,  sharp-pointed,  green- 
ish-yellowish more  or  less  tinged  with  reddish-purple,  smooth  or  with 
white  silky  hairs  at  apex  and  edges  of  scales,  mostly  appressed;  lateral 
buds  on  rapidly  grown  shoots  normal,  on  slowly  grown  spurs,  undevel- 
oped or  rudimentary;  generally  a  small  lateral  bud  just  below  terminal 
bud.  BUD-SCALES — increasing  from  below  vipward,  the  two  lowest 
about  Vs  length  of  the  bud,  more  or  less  keeled  and  3-nerved,  dark- 
margined  and  with  a  single  short  dark  spiny  tip,  lower  scales  often  3- 
tipped,  edges  from  slightly  downy  on  outermost  scales  to  densely  silky- 
hairy  on  inner  scales;  on  terminal  buds  about  5  scales  visible,  more  or 
less  imperfectly  2-ranked;  lateral  buds  on  vigorous  shoots  often  with 
pair  of  extra  lateral  scales  basally  united  giving  short-stalked  appear- 
ance to  bud. 

FRUIT — Berry-like,  sometimes  if  infected  by  a  rust  fungus  remaining 
dried  on   the  tree   through   the   winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  long  narrow  buds  of  the  Shad  Bush  bear  a  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  those  of  the  Beech.  The  Beech  buds,  however,  are 
divergent,  narrower,  with  10-20  scales  regularly  arranged  in  four 
rows  and  have  stipule-scars  nearly  encircling  the  twig.  The  Shad 
Bush  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  fungus  [Dimerosporium  ColUnsiU 
which  blackens  the  leaves  and  causes  a  profuse  branching  at  the 
point  of  infection.  The  "witches'  brooms"  thus  formed  with  the 
persistentent  blackened  leaves  often  enables  the  tree  to  be  recognized  at 
a  distance.  It  is  probable  that  the  Shad  Bush,  as  here  described  in- 
cludes  a   number  of  forms   or   distinct   species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Dry,  open  woods,  hillsides.  Newfoundland  and  Nova 
Scotia  to  Lake  Superior;  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  west  to  Minne- 
sota, Kansas,  and  Louisiana. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Throughout. 

WOOD — Heavy,  exceedingly  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  dark  brown 
often  tinged  with  red,  with  thick  lighter  colored  sapwood  of  40-50 
layers  of  annual  growth;  occasionally  used  for  the  handles  of  tools  and 
other  small  implements;  under  the  name  of  "Lancewood"  it  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fish  rods. 


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mte 

Shad  Bush 


360  TREES  IN  WINTER 


THE  HAWTHORNS 
Thorns,  Haws,  Thorn  Apples,  White  Thorns. 

Crataegus  L. 


NOTE — The  Hawthorns  form  one  of  the  most  perplexing  genera 
among-  flowering  plants.  Some  600  species  have  been  described  and 
Sargent  in  his  Manual  gives  descriptions  of  132  tree-like  forms  for 
North  America.  The  distinctions  used  are  based  largely  upon  flower  and 
fruit  characters.  They  are  at  best  often  difl^cult  of  application  and 
entirely  unavailable  in  the  winter.  It  seems,  therefore,  most  advisable 
to  give  a  description  which  will  hold  good  for  the  whole  group  rather 
than  a  detailed  account  of  any  single  species.  The  twig  photographed 
was  taken  from  the  Cockspur  Thorn  [Crataegus  Crus-galli  L..];  the  habit 
photograph  from  an  undetermined  specimen  belonging  to  the 
Pruinosa  group  growing  in   a  deserted   pasture, 

HABIT — Generally  low  wide  spreading  trees  or  shrubs. , 

BARK — Generally  dark,  scaly. 

TWIGS — Rigid,  round  in  section,  more  or  less  zigzag,  rarely  unarmed, 
generally  armed  with  axillary  thorns  which  are  almost  always  un- 
branched — not  infrequently  branched  when  arising  from  the  trunk  and 
larger  branches — generally  similar  in  color  to  branches  from  which  they 
grow;  thorns  generally  absent  from  many  of  the  nodes.  LENTICELS — 
oblong,  generally  pale. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  narrow,  cres- 
cent-shaped, slightly  raised.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS— 3. 

BUDS — Small,  spherical  or  nearly  so;  terminal  bud  generally  present, 
scarcely  larger  than  lateral  buds;  a  lateral  accessory  bud  on  each  side 
of  the  axillary  thorn,  frequently  only  one  of  the  two  developed.  BUD- 
SCALES — numerous,  overlapping,  thick,  rounded,  blunt,  bright  chestnut 
brown,    shining. 

FRUIT — Berry-like,  botanically  a  small  drupe-like  pome  with  1-5 
nutlets. 

COMPARISONS — The  Hawthorns  may  be  distinguished  from  other 
genera  by  the  unbranched  axillary  thorns  usually  present  on  their 
twigs,  and  by  the  bright,  shining,  chestnut  brown,  generally  spherical 
buds.  The  thorns  of  the  Honey  Locust  are  branched  and  situated  some 
distance  above  the  axillary  buds.  The  Osage  Orange  [Madura  pomifera 
(Raf.)  Schneider],  sometimes  grown  in  hedges,  has  unbranched  thorns 
generally  present  at  all  the  nodes,  decreasing  regularly,  toward  the 
tip  of  the  greenish-gray  twigs,  without  terminal  buds  but  with  buds 
lateral  to  the  thorns  and  in  the  broad  leaf-scar  a  single  more  or 
less  ring-shaped  bundle-scar  or  a  number  of  nearly  confluent  bundle- 
scars. 

DISTRIBUTION — The  Hawthorns  are  most  abundant  in  eastern  North 
America  occurring  here  from  Newfoundland  to  the  mountains  of  north- 
ern Mexico.  A  few  species  occur  in  the  Rocky  mountains  and  Pacfiic 
coast  regions  and  in  China,  Japan,  Siberia,  central  and  southern  Asia 
and  in  Europe. 

AVOOD — Heavy,  hard,  tough,  close-grained,  reddish-brown,  with  thick 
lighter  colored  usually  pale  sapwood;  useful  for  the  handles  of  tools, 
mallets  and  other  small  articles. 


Hawthorx 


362  TREES  IN  WINTER 

WILD  BLACK  CHERRY 

Rum,  Cabinet  or  Black  Cherry. 

Prunus  serotina  Ehrh. 

Padus serotina  (Ehrh.)  Agardh. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree  30-50  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
N^.  from     8      or     10     inches     to      2     feet,      becoming     much     larger     in     the 

-V^       middle    and    southern    states;    branches    spreading    often    more    or    less 
zigzag  forming  an  irregular  oblong  head. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth  reddish-brown  with 
conspicuous  oblong  whitish  horizontal  lenticels,  easly  peeled  off  in  thin 
dark  papery  layers  exposing  the  bright  green  bark  below,  becoming 
with  age  very  much  roughened  by  irregular,  close,  dark,  scaly  plates 
with  upturned  edges. 

TW^IGS — Rather  slender,  smooth,  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  covered 
with  a  grayish  skin  easily  rubbed  off;  crushed  twigs  with  odor  and  taste 
of  bitter  almonds.  LENTICELS — numerous,  pale,  minute,  rounded  dots, 
becoming  horizontally  elongated  and  more  conspicuous  on  later  growth. 
PITH — whitish  or  brownish. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  small,  semi-oval  to 
inversely  triangular,  raised.  STIPULE-SCARS — inconspicuous  or  appar- 
ently absent.     BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,   often   inconspicuous. 

BUDS — Medium  sized,  ovate,  blunt  to  sharp-pointed,  about  4  mm. 
long,  smooth,  bright  reddish-brown,  divergent  or  sometimes  somewhat 
flattened  and  appressed;  terminal  bud  slightly  larger  than  lateral  buds. 
BUD-SCALES — about  4  visible,  broadly  ovate,  more  or  less  rounded 
and  keeled  on  the  back,  of  nearly  uniform  color  or  with  darker  edges, 
sometimes  partially  covered  with  a  grayish  skin,  similar  to  that  usual  on 
the   twigs. 

FRUIT — A  drupe  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  ripening  in  summer  in 
drooping  elongated  clusters. 

C03IPARIS0IVS — The  Wild  Black  Cherry  in  its  young  growth 
resembles  the  Choke  Cherry  but  grows  to  be  a  good  sized  tree  and 
develops  a  very  rough  scaly  bark.  Further  the  lenticels  tend  to  be 
whitish  and  elongate  horizontally  with  age,  the  buds  are  smaller  and 
redder  and  their  scales  are  not  white-margined.  From  the  cultivated 
Sweet  and  Sour  Cherries  the  Black  Cherry  is  distinguished  by  absence 
of  fruiting  spurs,  by  smaller  buds  and  by  the  character  of  its  bark.> 

DISTRIBUTION — In  all  sorts  of  soils  and  exposures;  open  places  and 
rich  woods.  Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Superior;  south  to  Florida;  west  to 
North  Dakota,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  extending  through  Mexico,  along  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Central  America  to  Peru. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — not  reported  north  of  Oldtown  (Penob- 
scot county),  frequent  throughout  the  other  New  England  states. 

WOOD — Light,  strong,  rather  hard,  close  straight-grained,  with  a 
satiny  surface,  light  brown  or  red,  with  thin  yellow  sapwood  of  10-12 
layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  in  cabinet-making  and  the 
interior  finish  of  houses.  The  bark,  especially  that  of  the  branches  and 
roots,  yields  hydrocyanic  acid  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic  and  sedative. 
The  ripe  fruit  is  used  to  flavor  alcoholic  liquors  whence  one  of  the 
common  names. 


Wild  Black  Cjikkry 


364  TREES  IN-  WINTER 

CHOKE  CHERRY 

Prunus  virginiana  L. 

Padus  virginiana  (L.)  Roemer. 


HABIT — Generally  a  tall  shrub  or  a  small  tree  rarely  reaching  20-30 
ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  6-8  inches. 

BARK — Dull  grayish-brown,  smoothish  but  slightly  roughened  with 
raised  buff-orange  rounded  dots  formed  by  the  enlarged  lenticels,  not 
becoming  rough-scaly  with  age;  on  young  trunks  and  branches  easily 
peeled  off  in  thin,  dark  papery  layers  exposing  the  bright  green  bark 
below, 

TlrVIGS — Slender  to  rather  stout,  averaging  stouter  than  those  of  the 
Wild  Black  Cherry,  smooth,  reddish  to  grayish-brown,  without  grayish 
skin  easily  rubbed  off,  crushed  twigs  with  a  rank  odor  and  taste  in 
addition  to  that  of  bitter  almonds.  LENTICELS — numerous,  rather  con- 
spicuous, buff-orange  dots,  slightly  elongated  longitudinally  the  first 
year  and  not  becoming  distinctly  elongated  horizontally  on  later 
growth.     PITH — of  recent  growth   white. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  elliptical,  raised. 
STIPULE-SCARS — inconspicuous  or  absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,  fre- 
quently sunken. 

BUDS — Rather  large,  narrow,  ovate  to  conical,  about  6  mm.  or  more 
long,  smooth,  pale  brown,  sharp-pointed,  generally  divergent  with  more 
or  less  strongly  curved  apex;  terminal  bud  frequently  slightly  smaller 
than  lateral  buds.  BUD-SCALES — a  half  dozen  or  more  scales  visible, 
broadly  ovate,  more  or  less  rounded  and  keeled  on  the  back  with  thin 
grayish-margins. 

FRUIT— A  drupe  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  ripening  in  summer  in  droop- 
ing elongated  clusters. 

COMPARISONS — The  Choke  Cherry  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
Wild  Black  Cherry  with  which  it  is  frequently  confused  by  its  smaller 
size,  smoothish  bark  even  in  old  age,  its  buff  colored  lenticels  which 
do  not  elongate  horizontally,  the  rank  odor  of  its  twigs  and  by  its 
larger  and  paler  buds  with  whitsh-margined  bud-scales.  From  the 
cultivated  Sweet  and  Sour  Cherries  the  Choke  Cherry  is  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  short  fruit  spurs  and  by  its  gray-margined  bud-scales. 
The  lower  twig  in  the  plate  is  infected  by  a  fungus  disease — Black  Knot 
(Plowrightia  morbosaj — which  occurs  less  abundantly  upon  the  Wild 
Black  and  Wild  Red  Cherries  and  also  upon  our  cultivated  Cherries  as 
well  as  upon  the  Plums. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  varying  soils;  along  river  banks,  on  dry  plains,  in 
woods,  common  along  walls  and  often  in  thickets.  Prom  Newfoundland 
across  the  continent,  as  far  north  on  the  Mackenzie  river  as  62  degrees; 
south  to  Georgia;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Common  throughout;  at  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet 
upon  Mt.  Katahdin.  In  Connecticut,  rare  near  the  coast  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  state  but  frequent  or  common  elsewhere. 

WOOD — Hard,  close-grained,  weak,  light  brown;  of  insufficient  size 
to  be  of  value  commercially. 


Choke  Cherry 


366  TREES  IN  WINTER 

WILD  RED  CHERRY 

Bird,  Fire,  Pin  or  Pigeon  Cherry 

Prunus  pennsylvanica  L.  f. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  generally  under  30  ft.  in  height  with 
trunk  diameter  of  8-10  inches;  trunk  erect  generally  continuous  into 
crown  with  slender  branches  arising  at  a  rather  sharp  angle,  forming  a 
rather  narrow  oblong  open  head.  The  trees  growing  in  the  open  about 
otorrs  have  in   general  a  narrower  outline  than  the  tree  photographed. 

BARK — Bright  reddish-brown,  for  the  most  part  smooth,  often  slight- 
ly peeling  in  transverse  strips  especially  toward  the  base  of  the  trunk 
and  in  old  trees  somewhat  roughened;  inner  bark  on  young  branches 
bright  green.  LENTICELS — conspicuous,  horizontally  elongated,  lens- 
shaped,  orange  colored  and  powdery  on  the  surface. 

TWIGS — Slender,  generally  less  than  2  mm.  thick,  often  less  than 
1.5  mm.  thick,  smooth,  bright  red  and  shining,  more  or  less  covered  with 
a  gray  skin  easily  rubbed  off;  bitter  aromatic.  LENTICELS — scattered, 
pale  to  bright  orange  colored,  becoming  slightly  elongated  horizontally 
and  more  conspicuous  on  older  growth.     PITH — brown,  narrow. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  semi-oval,  raised. 
STIPULE-SCARS — back  of  leaf-scars,  generally  indistinct  or  absent. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,  the  central  larger  one  often  alone  distinct. 

BUDS — Minute,  generally  under  3  mm.  long,  blunt-pointed,  ovate, 
reddish-brown,  smooth,  often  partially  covered  with  a  grayish  skin, 
divergent,  on  rapidly  grown  shoots  characteristically  clustered  at  the 
tips  as  well  as  scattered,  with  the  terminal  bud  present  but  generally 
smaller  than  those  in  the  cluster  around  it;  also  clustered  buds  at  ends 
of  short  fruiting  spurs;  collateral  accessory  buds  sometimes  present. 
BUD-SCALES — ovate,  often  notched  and  short-pointed,  not  readily  dis- 
tinguished as  separate  scales  with  the  naked  eye. 

FRUIT^ — A  drupe  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  ripening  in  summer  in  short 
clusters  or  with  stalks  arising  from  a  common  point  on  the  stem, 

COMPARISONS — The  appearance  of  the  bark  and  the  taste  of  the 
twigs  show  the  Wild  Red  Cherry  to  belong  to  the  Cherry  group.  It 
differs  from  the  other  cherries  in  its  very  slender  twigs  and  small  buds 
which  are  constantly  clustered  at  the  tips  even  of  rapidly  grown  shoots. 
The  Wild  Black  Cherry  when  tree-like  is  further  distinguished  by  its 
scaly  bark.  The  powdery  bright  reddish-orange  lenticels  on  young 
and  even  old  trunks  form  a  striking  character  but  a  similar  color 
may  occur  in  the  lenticels  of  the  other  Cherries  especially  if  the  outer 
surface  is  rubbed  off. 

DISTRIBUTION — Roadsides,  clearings,  burnt  lands,  hill  slopes,  occa- 
sional in  rather  low  grounds.  From  Labrador  to  the  Rocky  mountains, 
through  British  Columbia  to  the  Coast  Range;  south  to  North  Carolina; 
west    to   Minnesota   and   Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Throughout;  very  common  in  the  northern 
portions,  as  high  up  as  4,500  ft.  upon  Katahdin,  less  common  southward 
and  near  the  seacoast. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  light  brown,  with  thin  yellow  sap- 
wood  of  little  commercial   importance. 


Wild  Eed  Cherry 


368  TBEES  IN"  WINTER 


SWEET  CHERRY 
Mazzard  Cherry,  European  Bird  Cherry. 

Prunus  avium  L. 


HABIT — A  good  sized  tree  reaching  50-75  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  2-3  ft.;  trunk  erect  continuous  into  the  crown  with  slender 
ascending  branches  forming  a  narrow  pyramidal  head;  with  age  becom- 
ng  broad-spreading. 

BARK — Characteristically  reddish-brown  with  horizontally  elongated 
buff  colored  lenticels,  tardily  peeling  off  in  transverse  strips  which 
curl  back  and  expose  the  lighter  bark  below  which  on  very  old  trunks 
may  be  roughened  by  scaly  ridges;  on  young  branches  bark  easily 
peeled  off  in  a  thin  dark  papery  layer  exposing  the  bright  green  bark 
below. 

TW^IGS — Stout,  bright  reddish-brown,  smooth  and  shining,  more  or 
less  covered  with  a  grayish  skin  easily  rubbed  off;  crushed  twigs  with 
bitter  taste.  In  addition  to  long  rapidly  grown  shoots,  stubby  slowly 
grown  fruit  spurs  with  terminally  clustered  buds  are  abundant.  LEN- 
TICELS— rather  numerous,  pale,  becoming  horizontally  elongated. 
PITH — brown. 

LiEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  rather  broad,  semi- 
oval  to  inversely  triangular,  raised.  STIPULE-SCARS — slightly  behind 
leaf-scars,  oblique,  often  indistinct   or  absent.     BUNDLE-SCARS — 3. 

BUDS — Clustered  at  ends  of  fruiting  spurs  or  scattered  on  rapidly 
grown  shoots;  terminal  bud  scarcely  larger  than  lateral  buds; 
lateral  buds  divergent,  stout,  ovate,  pointed,  constricted  at  base,  about 
7  mm.  long,  reddish-brown,  smooth,  often  partially  covered  with  a 
grayish  skin.  BUD-SCALES — broadly  ovate,  with  edges  often  lighter 
colored  and  more  or  less  frayed  and  ragged. 

FRl'IT — A  drupe  with  edible  flesh,  generally  sweet  though  in  some 
varieties  tart,  with  hard  stone  or  pit  enclosing  the  seed,  ripening  in 
summer,  with  stalks  generally  several "  in  a  cluster  arising  from  a 
common  point  on  the  stem, 

COMPARISONS — The  two  types  of  cultivated  cherries,  the  Sweet  and 
the  Sour,  are  to  be  distinguished  chiefly  by  habit  of  growth  and  relative 
size  of  twigs  and  buds,  the  Sweet  Cherry  having  a  pyramidal  outline 
generally  with  a  central  leader  and  with  relatively  stout  twigs  and 
larger  buds.  These  differences  are  well  shown  in  the  plates.  (See 
Comparisons   under  Sour  Cherry.) 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  Europe,  in  this  country  cultivated  for 
5ts  fruit  in  several  improved  varieties  such  as  the  Black  Tartarian, 
May  Duke,  Windsor,  Napoleon,  etc.,  and  in  some  places  escaped  from 
cultivation. 

"WOOD — Strong,  rather  soft,  close-grained,  yellowish-red,  taking  a 
fine  polish;  largely  used  in  Europe  for  fine  furniture,  inside  finishing 
and  for  musical  and  other  instruments. 


1  ' 

Sweet  Cherry 


370  TREES  IN  WINTER 


SOUR  CHERRY 

Pie  or  Morello  Cherry. 

Prunus  Cerasus  L. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  20-30  ft.  or  less  in  height  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  10  or  12  inches;  with  stout  spreading  branches  and  more  or  less 
drooping-  branchlets  forming  a  broad,  low,  rounded  head. 

BARK — Similar  to  that  of  the  Sweet  Cherry,  but  the  outer  smooth 
bark  sooner  peeling  back  and  exposing  the  roughened  inner  bark. 

TWIGS — Slender,    otherwise    resembling    twigs    of   Sweet    Cherry. 

LEAF-SCARS— Similar   to   those   of  the   Sweet   Cherry. 

BUDS — Similar  to  those  of  the  Sweet  Cherry  but  smaller  and  appa- 
rently more  frequently  clustered  toward  the  ends  of  long  shoots. 
Compare  the  twig  photographs  of  the  two  species. 

FRUIT — Similar  to  that  of  Sweet  Cherry  but  flesh  tart. 

COMPARISONS — The  Sour  Cherry  differs  from  the  Sweet  Cherry  in  its 
spreading  habit  of  growth,  its  more  slender  twigs  and  smaller  buds. 
Compare  plates  of  the  two  species.  From  the  native  Wild  Black  and 
Choke  Cherries  the  cultivated  Sweet  and  Sour  Cherries  are  distinguished 
by  the  short  fruit  spurs;  from  the  Wild  Red  Cherry  by  their  stouter 
twigs  and  buds  and  absence  of  a  bud  cluster  at  the  tip  of  long  shoots, 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  Europe,  in  this  country  cultivated  for  its 
fruit  in  several  improved  varieties  such  as  the  Amarelles,  Early  Rich- 
mond, Montmorency,  etc.,  and  the  Morellos,  Louis  Philippe,  etc.,  and  in 
some   places    escaped   from   cultivation. 

"WOOD — Similar  in  appearance  and  uses  to  that  of  the  Sweet  Cherry 
from  which  it  is  not  distinguished  by  wood  workers. 


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Sour  Cuerrt 


372  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


CANADA  PLUM 
Red,  Horse  or  Wild  Plum. 

Prunus  nigra  Ait. 
P.  americana,  var.  nigra  Waugh 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  20-25  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  5-8  inches;  with  contorted  branches  and  more  or  less  zigzag 
branchlets  forming  a  low  spreading  head.  It  tends  to  sucker  freely 
forming  low  thickets. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  branches  dark  brown  with  prominent 
raised  lenticels  which  are  horizontally  slightly  elongated;  at  first 
smooth  but  soon  splitting  and  curling  back  in  thick  grayish-brown 
layered  plates  exposing  the  rough  scaly  bark  below. 

TW^IGS — Slender,  smooth,  reddish-brown,  often  more  or  less  covered 
with  a  grayish  skin,  bitter  aromatic,  lateral  spiny  spurs  generally 
present.  LENTICELS — scattered,  large  and  rather  conspicuous  pale 
dots. 

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  broadly  crescent- 
shaped.  STIPULE-SCARS— indistinct  or  absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 
3,   often   inconspicuous. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  about  4-8  mm.  long,  conical, 
narrow-pointed,  grayish-brown;  collateral  buds  sometimes  present. 
BUD-SCALES — triangular,  pale  and  thin  on  the  margins,  generally  hairy 
at  the  apex. 

FRlTiT — A  smooth-skinned  drupe  with  smooth  stone. 

COMPARISONS — The  Plums  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members 
of  the  genus  Prunus  by  the  absence  of  a  terminal  bud.  The  Canada 
Plum  so  far  as  one  can  judge  from  the  material  investigated  is 
distinguishable  by  its  larger  buds  from  the  American  Plum,  of  which 
it  is  considered  by  some  only  as  a  variety. 

DISTRIBUTION — Native  along  streams  and  in  thickets,  often  spon- 
taneous around  dwellings  and  along  fences.  From  Newfoundland 
through  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Lake  Manitoba;  rare  south 
of  New  England;  west  to  Wisconsin.  Has  given  rise  to  some  valuable 
fruit-bearing  varieties   in   cultivation. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant  in  the  northern  sections  and 
common  throughout;  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — frequent,  especially 
in  the  northern  sections;  Massachusetts — occasional;  Connecticut — rare, 
Norfolk,  a  few  trees  about  an  abandoned  garden;  Oxford;  Rhode  Island — 
not  reported. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  rich,  bright  reddish- 
brown  with  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood. 


Canada  Pluii 


374  TREES  IN  WINTER 

CULTIVATED  PLUMS 


NOTE — The  Cultivated  Plums  are  either  improved  forms  of  originally 
wild  species  or  have  been  derived  by  hybridization  from  a  number  of 
such  forms.  The  types  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are  the 
American  (derived  from  Prunus  americana),  the  European  (derived 
from  Prunus  domestica)  and  the  Japanese  (derived  from  Prunus 
triflora).  Although  the  varieties  of  a  given  type  differ  considerably  so 
that  without  further  study  it  does  not  seem  desirable  to  try  to  offer 
a  detailed  winter  classification  of  the  cultivated  plums,  still  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  unmixed  types  are  recognizable  in  winter. 
Certain  varieties,  the  Gold,  the  Lombard  and  the  Red  June  have  been 
chosen  for  the  photographs  to  illustrate  respectively  the  American,  the 
European   and  the  Japanese  types. 


THE  AMERICAN  PLUM.     VARIETY— GOLD 

Prunus  americana  Marsh. 
Illustrations    on   page    375. 


The  American  cultivated  type  of  Plum  has  very  slender  grayish- 
brown  twigs  and  branches  which  have  a  decidedly  drooping  habit  of 
growth.  The  bark  is  brown;  on  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth, 
shining,  with  prominent,  light-colored,  horizontally  elongated  lenticels 
(see  upper  part  of  bark  picture).  The  habit  photograph  was  taken 
from  a  specimen  of  the  native  form,  grown  in  the  Arnold  Aboretum. 
The  American  Plum,  as  growing  wild,  closely  resembles  the  Canada 
Plum  and  by  some  this  latter  species  is  considered  merely  a  variety 
of  the  former.  The  material  examined  shows  smaller  twigs  than  the 
Canada  Plum  with  buds  generally  under  4  mm.  long.  The  most  northern 
station  has  been  reported  to  be  along  the  slopes  of  Graylock,  Mass. 
In  Connecticut  it  is  reported  as  rare  in  the  southern  district,  becoming 
occasional  northward. 


THE  EUROPEAN   PLUM.     VARIETY— LOMBARD 

Prunus  domestica  L. 
Illustrations  on  page   376. 


The  European  Plum  has  a  lighter  bark  than  the  other  two  types 
without  conspicuous  horizontal  lenticels,  with  stout,  upright,  long 
shoots  and  an  upright  habit  of  growth. 


THE  JAPANESE  PLUM.     VARIETY— RED  JUNE 

Prunus  triflora  Roxbg. 
Illustrations  on  page   377. 


The  Japanese  Plum  has  a  very  dark  deeply  ridged  bark  without 
conspicuous  lenticels.  The  long  shoots  are  rather  slender  and  bright 
colored  and  stout  fruit  spurs  are  numerous. 


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378  TREES  IN  WINTER 


PEACH 

Prunus  Persica  (L.)  Stokes. 
Amygdalus  Persica  L. 


HABIT— A  small  tree  g-enerally  under  20  ft.  in  lieight  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  about  6  inches;  trunk  low  with  spreadinj:^-  limbs  and  ascend- 
ing- branchlets   forming   a   low   broad   rounded   head. 

BARK — Dark  reddish-brown,  smooth,  with  prominent  horizontally- 
elongated    lenticels,    becoming    roughened    and    scaly    at    base. 

TWIGS — Of  medium  thickness,  smooth  and  very  shiny,  greenish  to 
bright  reddish-purple,  often  green  below  and  red  abave  toward  the  light, 
becoming  redder  as  spring  approaches;  on  rapidly  grown  shoots  branches 
sometimes  produced  the  same  season;  crushed  twigs  with  odor  and  taste 
of  bitter  almonds.  LENTICELS — very  numerous  and  very  minute  pale 
dots,  in  reality  stomata,  best  seen  with  hand-lens  and  on  reddish 
portions  of  twigs,  only  part  of  them  elongating  with  age.  PITH — rather 
wide,    often   somewhat    5-pointed,    whitish    or   tinged   with    brown. 

liEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  elliptical  to  semi- 
oval,  strongly  raised,  often  more  or  less  decurrent.  STIPULE-SCARS — 
behind  and  above  leaf-scars  or  raised  on  persistent  bases  of  stipules, 
often  indistinct  and  readily  confused  with  broken  bud-scales;  often 
a  small  raised  leaf-scar  above  and  on  either  side  of  the  main  leaf-scar 
in  connection  with  the  collateral  buds  when  these  are  present.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — 3,   often  inconspicuous. 

BUDS — Ovate,  rounded  at  apex  or  blunt-pointed,  generally  under  5 
mm.  long,  densely  pale-woolly  at  least  toward  apex  and  within,  more 
or  less  appressed,  1  or  2  collateral  buds  often  present  at  a  node — 
these  generally  stout  flower  buds  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  narrower 
leaf  bud  between  (in  the  group  of  three  buds  on  twig  in  plate  all  are 
flower  buds);  terminal  bud  present  often  with  one  or  more  lateral 
buds  adjacent.  BUD-SCALES — reddish-brown,  often  with  ragged  edges 
and  generally  indistinct  and  covered  with  grayish   wool. 

FRUIT — A   large   downy   drupe   with    an    irregularly   pitted    stone. 

COMPARISONS — The  dense  woolliness  of  its  stout  buds  and  the  very 
numerous  and  extremely  minute  pale  dots  on  its  highly  colored  and 
polished  twigs  readily  distinguish  the  Peach   from   its   near   relatives. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  Asia,  cultivated  in  this  country  for  its 
fruit,  naturalized  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  northern  states 
and  spontaneous  in  waste  places  and  on  road-sides  in  the  northern 
states. 

-WOOD — Rather  soft,  close-grained  and  light  brown.  The  seeds 
develop  considerable  hydrocyanic  acid  and  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  a   substitute   for   oil   of   bitter   almonds. 


Peach 


380  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


KENTUCKY  COFFEE  TREE 
Coffee  Nut,  Coffee  Bean,  Nicker  Tree,  Mahogany. 

Gymnocladus  dioica  (L.)  Koch. 
G.  canadensis  Lam. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree  30-60  ft.  in  height,  trunk  generally  soon 
dividing  into  3  or  4  slightly  spreading  limbs  or  less  frequently  with  a 
continuous  trunk,  forming  a  narrow  obovate  head  with  thick  branchlets 
devoid  of  spray;  the  large  stout  pods  often  remaining  on  tree  through- 
out the  winter. 

BARK — Dark  brown,  characteristically  roughened  with  thin  tortuous 
recurved  scale-like  ridges  which  are  distinct  even  upon  comparatively 
young  branches. 

TAVIGS — Very  stout,  more  or  less  contorted,  blunt,  brown  or  slightly 
greenish,  generally  white-crusted,  smooth  or  often  velvety-downy. 
LENTICELS — rather  numerous,  large,  generally  more  conspicuous  on 
second  year's  growth.     PITH — wide,  salmon-pink  to  brown. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  pale,  raised, 
broadly  heart-shaped.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS— 
large,  raised,  generally  3-5. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  small,  bronze,  silky,  downy, 
partially  sunken,  scarcely  projecting  beyond  the  surface  of  the  twig, 
surrounded  by  an  incurved  downy  rim  of  the  bark;  axillary  bud  in  the 
depression  at  top  of  leaf-scar,  one  or  sometimes  2  superposed  buds  pres- 
ent.    BUD-SCALES — sometimes   2   lateral  scales  visible. 

FRUIT — A  reddish-brown,  large,  broad,  flat,  oblong,  abruptly  pointed 
pod,  4-10  inches  long  by  li/^-2  inches  wide,  frequently  remaining  un- 
opened on  tree  during  winter,  generally  somewhat  larger  than  shown 
in  the  photograph.     Seed,   dark  brown,  flattish. 

C03IPARIS0NS — A  superficial  glance  at  the  habit  of  the  Kentucky 
Coffee  Tree  might  lead  one  to  mistake  its  stout  branchlets  for  those  of 
the  Ailanthus.  Its  curious  narrow  ridged  bark,  however,  should  at 
once  prevent  any  confusion  between  the  two  trees.  The  silky  bronze 
superposed  buds  partially  sunken  in  downy  dimples  of  the  bark  in 
connection  with  the  stout  twigs  and  salmon-colored  pith  are  sufl^cient 
characters  to  distinguish  this  tree  from  all  other  forms. 

DISTRIBUTION — Not  native  in  New  England  but  frequently  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental  tree;  grows  wild  in  rich  deep  soil  from  central  New 
York  and  southern  Minnesota  southward  to  Tennessee  and  Oklahoma. 

WOOD — Heavy,  though  not  hard,  strong,  coarse-grained,  very  durable 
in  contact  with  soil,  rich  light  brown  tinged  with  red,  with  thin  lighter 
colored  sapwood  of  5-6  layers  of  annual  growth;  it  takes  a  fine  polish 
and  is  occasionally  used  in  cabinet-making  and  for  fence-posts,  rails 
and  in  construction.  Its  seeds  were  formerly  used  as  a  substitute 
for   coffee. 


Kentucky  Coffee  Tree 


3^2  TREES  IN  WINTER 

HONEY  LOCUST 
Three-thorned  Acacia,  Honey  Shucks,  Sweet  Locust,  Thorn 

Tree. 

Gleditsia  triacanthus  L.  (Sometimes  called  Gleditschia.) 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree  40-60  ft.  in. height. with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  1-3  ft.;  trunk  commonly  short  dividing  into  a  number  of  slightly 
spreading  limbs,  with  somewhat  drooping  lateral  branches,  forming 
a  broad  rounded  obovate  or  flat-topped  head.  Seen  against  the  sky 
the  smaller  branches  appear  zigzag  with  characteristic  swellings  at 
the  nodes  often  surmounted  with  thorns  and  rudimentary  branchlets 
developed  from  the  extra  buds.  (See  branches  at  side  of  trunk  in 
bark  picture.) 

BARK — Grayish-brown  darkening  with  age,  on  young  trunks  and 
branches  smooth,  with  raised  oblong  lenticels,  on  older  trunks  more 
or  less  roughened  into  broad  ridges  with  firm,  persistent  recurved  edges. 
Some  trunks  have  bark  practically  smooth  except  for  a  few  deep  fissures; 
some  trunks  are  thickly  fringed  with  dense  masses  of  long  branched 
spines,   while   others  are  free  from   them. 

TWIGS — Slender,  shining,  smooth,  reddish  to  greenish-brown,  often 
light  mottled  or  streaked,  zigzag  with  enlarged  nodes;  a  large  branched 
thorn  with  pale  reddish-brown  pith,  discontinuous  with  that  of  the 
stem,  generally  present  above  node.  LENTICELS — minute,  scattered, 
becoming  conspicuous  brown  raised  dots  on  older  growth.  PITH — 
thick,  whitish. 

LEAP-SCARS — Alternate,  generally  more  than  2-ranked,  V-shaped 
with  upper  margins  and  apex  generally  swollen.  STIPULE-SCARS 
— absent  or  inconspicuous.     BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,  rather  inconspicuous. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  the  lateral  buds  small,  generally  about 
5  more  or  less  distinct  at  a  node,  separated  one  above  the  other, 
decreasing  in  size  from  above  downward,  the  uppermost  a  superposed 
smooth  scaly  bud  breaking  through  the  bark,  the  next  also  scaly 
covered  by  or  breaking  through  the  leaf-scar,  the  lower  buds  without 
scales,  covered  by  bark  and  seen  as  minute  green  dots  in  a  longitudinal 
section  of  twig;  buds  often  continue  to  be  produced  at  the  nodes  for 
several  years  especially  when  the  twigs  aie  trimmed  as  in  hedges  and 
give  rise  to  a  bunch   of  more  or  less  rudimentary  branches. 

FRUIT — A  long,  flat,  reddish-brown,  more  or  less  twisted,  indehiscent 
pod  10  to  18  inches  long,  containing  numerous  flat  oval  seeds  about 
10  mm.  long.  The  photograph  of  the  fruit  is  reduced  to  about  %  nat- 
ural size. 

COMPARISONS — The  Honey  Locust  is  at  once  distinguished  from  the 
various  other  thorny  species  such  as  the  Hawthorn  and  Common  Locust 
by  its  large  branched  thorns  situated  above  the  leaf-scar.  When  the 
thorns  are  absent,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  vertical  row  of  separated 
smooth  buds,  the  upper  scaly  and  superposed,  the  lower  hidden  by 
the   bark,    are   sufficient    points   of   distinction. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  its  native  habitat  growing  in  a  variety  of  soils; 
rich  woods,  mountain  sides,  sterile  plains.  Southern  Ontario;  spreading 
by  seed  southward;  indigenous  along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Al- 
leghanies  in  Pennsylvania;  south  to  Georgia  and  Alabama;  west  from 
western  New  York  through  southern  Ontario  and  Michigan  to  Nebraska, 
Kansas,   Oklahoma   and   Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Not  native,  but  frequently  planted  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  or  for  hedges  and  escaped  from  cultivation;  Maine — young 
trees  in  the  southern  sections  said  to  have  been  produced  from  self- 
sown  seed;  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — introduced;  Massachusetts — • 
occasional;  Connecticut — rare,  occasional  or  local;  Rhode  Island — intro- 
duced and  fully  at  home.  Probably  sparingly  naturalized  in  many  other 
places  in  New  England. 

WOOD — Hard,  strong,  coarse-grained,  very  durable  in  contact  with 
soils,  red  or  bright  red-brown,  with  thin,  pale  sapwood  of  10-12  layers 
of  annual  growth;  largely  used  for  fence  posts  and  rails,  for  the  hubs 
of  wheels  and  in  construction. 


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Honey  Locust 


"^84  TREES  IN  WINTER 


REDBUD 
Judas  Tree. 

Cercis  canadensis  L. 


-     HABIT — A  small  tree  up  to  40  ft.  in  height  though  generally  smaller, 
developing  an  upright  or  a  low,  broad,  irregular  head. 

BARK — Reddish-brown  to  almost  black,  somewhat  ridged  and  scaly. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  dark  reddish-brown,  smooth,  more  or  less  zigzig. 
LENTICELS — very  numerous,  minute.  PITH — especially  of  older  growth, 
generally   with   reddish   longitudinal   streaks. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  small,  slightly  raised,  inversely 
triangular,  with  short,  decurrent,  spreading,  more  or  less  evident  ridge 
from  outer  edges.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS— 3, 
large. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  small,  3  mm.  long,  or 
generally  much  smaller,  blunt,  dark  purplish  red,  somewhat  flattened 
and  appressed,  one  or  more  superposed  buds  often  present  the  upper- 
most the  largest;  flower  buds  conspicuously  present  on  older  wood 
often  at  the  base  of  a  branch  (see  plate)  or  even  on  the  trunk  itself. 
BUD-SCALES — overlapping,  somewhat  hairy  on  the  edges,  about  2 
visible  to  a  leaf  bud,   several  to   a  flower  bud. 

FRUIT — A  flat  pod  about  3  inches  long,  with  small  compressed 
seeds. 

COMPARISONS — The  stout  purplish  flower  buds  below  the  insertion 
of  the  branches  on  the  old  wood  will  serve  to  identify  this  small  tree. 
The  reddish  streaks  in  the  older  pith  seem  to  be  a  constant  character 
so  far  as  investigated  and  if  so  will  be  a"  useful  mark  of  distinction. 

DISTRIBUTION — Not  native  to  New  England  but  frequently  planted 
as  an  ornamental  tree.  It  grows  native  along  the  borders  of  streams 
and  rich  bottom  land  from  Ontario  to  New  Jersey  south  to  Florida  and 
west   to  Minnesota  and  Arkansas. 

W^OOD — Heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  close-grained,  rich  dark  brown 
tinged  with  red,  with  thin  lighter  colored  sapwood  of  8-10  layers  of 
annual  growth;  of  little  commercial  importance. 


Eedbud 


386  TREES  IN  WINTER 


YELLOW  WOOD 

Virgilia,  Gopher  Wood. 
Cladrastis  lutea  (Mx.  f.)  Koch. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  under  50  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of 
1-2  ft.;  trunk  generally  dividing  low  down  into  several  slightly 
spreading  limbs  with  numerous  slender  more  or  less  zigzag  branches, 
the  lower  often  strongly  declined,  forming  a  broad  rounded  head. 

BARK — Thin,  gray  to  light  brown,  in  general  smooth,  resembling 
bark  of  the  Beech  with  slight  protuberances  or  ridges  and  horizontal 
wrinkles. 

TAVIGS — Rather  slender,  more  or  less  zigzag,  brittle,  smooth  bright 
reddish-brown,  covered  often  by  a  grayish  skin,  odor  and  taste  resembl- 
ing that  of  a  raw  dried  pea  or  bean,  LENTICELS — pale,  scattered, 
generally  conspicuous.     PITH — wide,  white,  round  in  section. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked,  or  more  than  2-ranked,  raised, 
pale  yellow,  forming  a  V-shaped  collar  of  almost  uniform  diameter 
nearly  encircling  the  bud.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS 
— typically  5  (4-9)  generally  regularly  spaced  and  raised  or  at  times 
some  of  the  five  indistinct  or  lacking. 

1*UDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  naked,  superposed,  3-4, 
the  uppermost  the  largest  and  generally  alone  developing,  flattened, 
closely  packed  together  to  form  a  pointed  bud-like  hairy  cone  generally 
under  5  mm.  long,  nearly  surrounded  by  the  leaf-scar.  BUD-SCALES — • 
absent,   their  place  taken  by  the  densely  hairy  immature  leaves. 

FRUIT — A  smooth  flat  margined  pod  5-10  cm.  long,  containing  a  few 
small  oblong  compressed  seeds. 

COMPARISONS — The  '  Yellow  Wood  is  well  characterized  by  its 
beech-like  bark,  its  slender  twigs,  and  its  superposed  hairy  buds  closely 
clustered  into  a  bud-like  cone  and  practically  surrounded  by  the  leaf- 
scar  and  is  therefore  scarcely  to  be  confused  with   any  other  tree. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  rich  soil,  limestone  ridges  and  often  along 
mountain  streams,  rare  and  local.  Western  North  Carolina,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Alabama,  Missouri;  often  cultivated  in  New  England  as  an 
ornamental  tree. 

"WOOD — Heavy,  very  hard,  strong  and  close-grained,  with  a  smooth, 
satiny  surface,  bright,  clear  yellow  changing  to  light  brown  on  ex- 
posure, with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood;  used  for  fuel,  occasionally  for 
gun  stocks  and  yielding  a  clear  yellow  dye. 


Yellow  Wood 


388  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

COMMON  LOCUST 
Black,  Yellow  or  White  Locust,  Locust,  Acacia. 

Robinia  Pseudo-Acacia  L. 


HABIT — Generally  a  small  tree  20-35  ft.  or  occasionally  50-75  ft.  in 
height  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  eight 'inches  to  2%  ft.;  trunk  erect  or 
inclined,  frequently  dividing  into  a  number  of  ascending  limbs  with 
slender  scraggly  branches  forming  a  narrow  oblong  open  head;  often 
spreading  by  underground  stems  and  forming  thickets  of  small  trees. 
A  rapidly  growing  tree  but  short  lived  and  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
borers. 

BARK — Rough  even  on  young  trunks,  dark  reddish  to  yellowish- 
brown,  becoming  deeply  furrowed  into   rounded  ridges,  not  flaky. 

TAVIGS — Rather  slender,  brittle,  often  zigzag,  light  reddish  to  green- 
ish-brown, smooth  or  nearly  so,  more  or  less  angled  with  decurrent 
ridges  from  base  and  outer  angles  of  leaf-scars,  generally  spiny  with 
paired  stipular  prickles  at  nodes.  LENTICELS — pale,  scattered.  PITH 
— wide,  more  or  less  angled. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  generally  large  and 
conspicuous,  inversely  triangvilar  to  pentagonal,  raised,  covering  the 
buds.  STIPULES — in  the  form  of  prickles,  sometimes  poorly  developed 
or  entirely  lacking.     BUNDLE-SCARS— 3. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  minute,  rusty-downy,  3-4 
superposed,  generally  close  together,  enclosed  in  a  rusty-downy  cavity 
below  the  leaf-scar,  which  cracks  between  the  bundle-scars  at  the 
development  of  a  branch  usually  from  the  uppermost  bud  exposing  the 
long  rusty  hairs  attached  to  under  side  of  the  three  persistent  lobes 
of  the  leaf-scar;  on  rapidly  grown  shoots,  the  uppermost  bud  often 
develops  into  a  branch  the  first  season,  which  may  be  rudimentary  and 
deciduous,   leaving  a  small   scar  above  leaf-scar. 

FRUIT — A  dark  brown  flat  pod,  5-10  cm.  long,  containing  4-8  small 
brown  mottled  fiattish  seeds,  persistent  on  the  tree  throughout  the 
winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  paired  prickles  at  the  nodes  form  the  most 
striking  character  of  the  Common  Locust  but  since  they  are  absent  on 
some  twigs  and  entirely  lacking  on  certain  varieties,  the  hidden,  closely- 
packed  downy  buds  must  be  taken  as  the  chief  distinguishing  features. 
They  separate  the  Common  Locust  from  the  Honey  Locust  when  the 
characteristic  branched  thorns  are  not  present  on  the  latter  species.  The 
Clammy  Locust  IRobinia  viscosa  Vent.]  is  a  small  southern  tree  fre- 
quently cultivated  and  established  at  many  points  throughout  New 
England.  It  has  the  general  characters  of  the  Common  Locust  but 
the  stipular  prickles  are  less  well  developed  and  its  twigs  are  covered 
with  a  sticky  glandular  coating.  The  Bristly  Locust  IRoMnia  hispida 
L.]  is  a  mere  shrub  with  twigs  beset  with  bristly  hairs  but  generally 
without  stipular  prickles.  The  Prickly  Ash  or  Toothache  Tree 
[Zanthoxylon  americanum  L.],  a  shrub  occurring  throughout  New  Eng- 
land, resembles  the  Locust  in  its  stipular  prickles  (lower  twig  in  plate). 
It  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  Locusts,  however,  by  the  red  downy 
exposed  clustered  buds,  the  presence  of  a  terminal  bud  and  the  pun- 
gent flavor  of  its  twigs. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  its  native  habitat  growing  upon  mountain  slopes, 
along  the  borders  of  forests,  in  rich  soils.  Naturalized  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Ontario.  Native  from  southern  Pennsylvania  along  the 
mountains  to  Georgia;  west  to  Iowa  and  southward.  Formerly  much 
planted  as  an  ornamental  and  timber  tree;  more  cultivated  in  Europe 
than  any  other  American  tree. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — thoroughly  at  home,  forming  wooded 
banks  along  streams;  New  Hampshire — abundant  enough  to  be  reel  ->ned 
among  the  valuable  timber  trees;  Vermont — escaped  from  cultivation  in 
many  places;  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — common  in 
patches  and  thickets  and  along  the  roadsides  and  fences. 

W'OOD — Heavy,  exceedingly  hard  and  strong,  close-grained,  very 
durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  brown  or  rarely  light  green,  witn 
pale  yellow  sapwood  of  two  or  three  layers  of  annual  growth;  exten- 
sively used  in  shipbuilding  for  all  sorts  of  posts,  in  construction  and 
turner.v;  preferred  for  tree  nails  and  valued  as  fuel. 


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Common-  Locust 
Prickly  Ash  (lower  twig  only) 


390  TKEES  IN  WINTER 

AILANTHUS 

Tree  of  Heaven,  Chinese  Sumach. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa  Desf. 


HABIT — A  small  to  good  sized  tree  50-75  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  2-3  ft.;  forming  a  wide  flat-topped  head  with  stout  branch- 
lets  devoid  of  spray;  freely  sprouting  from  the  roots;  the  female  trees 
which  are  more  frequently  planted  than  the  male  often  retaining  the 
clusters  of  winged  fruit  throughout  the  winter. 

BARK — Grayish,  slightly  roughened  with  fine  light  colored  longitu- 
dinal streaks  in  striking  contrast  to  the  darker  background. 

TWIGS — Stout,  3'ellowish  to  reddish-brown  covered  with  very  short 
fine  velvety  down,  or  smooth,  rather  rank-smelling  when  crushed,  older 
twigs  often  shedding  the  down  in  the  form  of  a  thin  skin  and  exposing 
very  fine  light  longitudinal  striations  below.  LENTICELS — scattered, 
pale,  somewhat  longitudinally  elongated  becoming  on  older  growth  con- 
spicuous more  or  less  diamond-shaped  cracks.  PITH — wide,  chocolate 
brown. 

IjEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  large,  conspicuous 
heart-shaped.  STIPULE-SCARS— absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS— conspicu- 
ous, often  compound  or  curved,  generally  under  a  dozen  in  number, 
forming  a  curved  line. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  relatively  small,  generally 
under  4  mm.  long,  half-spherical,  reddish-brown,  downy.  BUD-SCALES 
— thick,  the  2  opposite  lateral  scales  generally  alone  showing. 

FRUIT — About  4  cm.  long,  winged,  spirally  twisted,  the  seed  in  the 
center  borne  in  conspicuous  clusters  which  frequently  remain  on  tree 
during  winter.  The  species  is  dioecious,  there  being  male  trees  bear- 
ing only  staminate  flowers  and  hence  producing  no  fruit  and  female 
trees  bearing  only  pistillate  flowers  and  producing  fruit.  Owing  to 
the  vile  smelling  character  of  the  staminate  flowers,  the  male  trees  are 
now  seldom  planted. 

COMPARISONS — The  Ailanthus  in  its  stout  twigs  resembles  somewhat 
the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree  but  its  buds  are  solitary  and  not  sunken,  its 
pith  is  brown  rather  than  salmon-colored  and  its  bark  is  not  ridged  as 
is  the  bark  of  the  Kentucky  Coffee  Tree.  From  the  stout-twigged 
Black  Walnut  and  Butternut  it  is  distinguished  by  its  solitary  buds 
and  continuous  pith;  from  the  Staghorn  and  Smooth  Sumachs  by  its 
broad  leaf-scars. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  China  sparsely  and  locally  naturalized 
in  southern  Ontario,  New  England  and  southward;  a  very  rapid  grower, 
thriving  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions  of  city  existence. 

WOOD — Light,  brownish-yellow,  with  lighter  sapwood,  soft,  weak, 
rather  open-grained;  in  Europe  used  in  the  manufacture  of  woodeaware 
and  charcoal,  little  used  in  this  country. 


Atlanthtts 


392 


TREES  IN  WINTER. 


STAGHORN  SUMACH 

Rhus  typhina  L. 

R.  hirta  (L.)  Sudw. 

(Left  hand  twig-  and   lower  habit   picture   in  plate) 


tr,^;l  HT.~:;"ttf  i"^  or  sman  tree  rarely  over  25  ft.  in  height  with  a 
trunk  diameter  less  than  a  foot;  making  a  straggling  growth  with 
forked  branching  forming  a  flat  head  with  conspicuous  red  fruit  clusters 
generally  present  and  stout  velvety  branchlets;  sprouting  abundantly 
::rom  the  roots  and  thus  forming  broad  thickets. 

BARK — Thin,  dark  brown,  smooth  or  in  older  trees  more  or  less 
rough-scaly. 

TWIGS— Stout,  conspicuously  covered  with  long  velvety  olive  brown 
cO  almost  black  hairs,  whence  the  common  name  from  resemblance  to 
a  stags  antlers  in  the  "velvet";  the  tips  often  killed  back  several 
^"Sil^^^t>y  the  frost;  cut  twig  exuding  a  copious  white  milky  .juice 
l^li-NllCl^Lfe — conspicuous  except  as  covered  by  the  hairs,  orange 
colored,  becoming  laterally  enlarged  rough  dots  on  older  growth.  PITH 
— wide,  yellowish  brown. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  deeply  V-shaped, 
almost  encircling  the  bud.  STIPULE-SCARS— absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS 
— scattered  or  frequently  arranged  in  3  groups,  generally  not  con- 
spicuous. 

BUDS — Terminal  buds  absent,  lateral  buds  conical,  densely  coated 
with  long  rusty  hairs. 

FRUIT — In  rather  compact,  erect,  cone-like  clusters;  individual  fruits, 
drupes  about  4  mm.  in  diameter,  coated  with  acid-tasting  red  hairs  and 
enclosing  a  small  bony-covered  seed.  It  is  said  that  a  good  lemonade  or 
"sumachade"  may  be  made  by  extracting  the  acid  from  the  drupes 
with  water  and  sweetening  to  taste.  The  conspicuous  red  fruiting 
clusters  are  persistent  throughout  the  winter  but,  since  the  species 
tends  to  be  dioecious,  are  not  borne  by  all  trees. 

COMPARISOIVS — A  somewhat  smaller  form,  the  Smooth  Sumach 
[Rhus  glabra  L.],  closely  resembles  the  Staghorn  Sumach  in  habit,  twig 
and  fruit  characters,  but  the  twigs  are  smooth  (except  the  fruit  stalks 
which  may  be  downy)  and  generally  are  covered  with  a  bloom.  (See 
twig  on  right  and  upper  habit  picture  in  plate.)  The  Dwarf  Sumach 
[Rhus  copallina  L.]  is  generally  smaller  in  New  England  than  the 
other  Sumachs.  It  has  red  fruit  clusters  like  the  Smooth  and  the 
Staghorn  Sumachs  but  is  distinguished  from  these  two  forms  by  the 
watery  instead  of  white  milky  juice,  by  the  leaf-scars  which  do  not 
surround  the  bud  and  by  the  turpentine  flavor  to  the  young  twigs.  For 
comparison  with  the  Poison  Sumach  see  latter  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  widely  varying  soils  and  localities,  river  banks, 
rocky  slopes  to  an  altitude  of  2.000  ft.,  cellar  holes  and  waste  places 
generally,  often  forming  copses.  From  Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Huron; 
south   to  Georgia;  west  to  Minnesota   and  Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND— Common  throughout. 

WOOD — Light,  brittle,  soft,  coarse-grained,  orange-colored,  streaked 
with  green,  with  thick  nearly  white  sapwood.  Pipes  for  drawing  the 
sap  of  the  Sugar  Maple  are  made  from  the  young  shoots.  The  bark 
especially  of  the  roots  is  rich  in  tannin. 


Staghorn  and  Smooth  Sumacu 


394  TREES  IN"  WINTER 

POISON  SUMACH 

Poison  Dogwood,  Poison  Elder,  Swamp  Sumach. 

Rhus  Vernix  L. 

R.  venenata  DC. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  5-20  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  reaching  8-10  inches;  trunk  generally  forking  near  the  ground 
producing  an  open,  rounded,  bushy  head. 

BARK — Thin,  light  gray,  smooth  or  slightly  roughened  with  more  or 
less   conspicuous  horizontally   elongated    lenticels. 

TWIGS — Stout,  brown  to  orange  brown,  older  growth  light  gray, 
smooth  with  watery  resinous  juice  turning  black  on  exposure.  LEN- 
TICELS— numerous,  minute,  raised  dots.     PITH — yellowish-brown. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  comparatively  large, 
conspicuous,  inversely  triangular,  raised,  upper  margin  straight, 
slightly  depressed  or  elevated,  pointed  and  projecting.  STIPULE-SCARS 
— absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous,  irregularly  scattered  in  % 
closed  ring  or  a  single  curved  line. 

BUDS — Terminal  buds  present,  small  but  larger  than  laterals;  short- 
conical,  3-20  mm.  long,  purplish.  BUD-SCALES — finely  downy  on  the 
back  and  margins. 

FRUIT — A  globular,  slightly  compressed,  striate  drupe  about  5  mm. 
in  diameter,  very  shiny,  ivory  white  or  yellowish-white,  generally  per- 
sistent through  the  winter  in  long  pendant  clusters.  The  species  is 
dioecious,  however,  and  therefore  some  trees  do  not  fruit. 

COMPARISONS — From  the  other  Sumachs  the  Poison  Sumach  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  presence  of  a  terminal  bud,  its  broad  leaf-scars  not 
encircling  the  bud,  with  conspicuous  generally  scattered  bundle-scars. 
The  loose  clusters  of  white  fruit  are  distinctive  when  present.  The 
Poison  Sumach  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  swamps  or  wet  places 
while  the  other  Sumachs  grow  for  the  mo^t  part  in  dryer  situations. 
The  Poison  Sumach  resembles  its  climbing  relative  the  Poison  Ivy  \_Rhus 
Toxicodendron  L.]  in  that  all  parts  of  the  plant  at  all  times  of  the  year 
contain  an  oil  poisonous  to  the  touch,  only  more  actively  so.  Some 
individuals  are  more  and  others  less  susceptible.  A  preventive 
against  the  poison  is  thoroughly  to  wash  as  soon  as  possible  in  strong 
alcohol  or  strong  soap  suds  the  parts  of  the  body  that  have  come  in 
contact  with  the  plant. 

DISTRIBUTION — Low  grounds  and  swamps;  occasional  on  the  moist 
slopes  of  hills.  Infrequent  in  Ontario;  south  to  northern  Florida;  west 
to  Minnesota  and  Louisiana. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — local  and  apparently  restricted  to  the 
southwestern  sections;  as  far  north  as  Chesterville,  Franklin  county; 
Vermont — infrequent;  common  throughout  the  other  New  England 
states,  especially  near  the  seacoast. 

\%^OOD — Light,  soft,  coarse-grained,  light  yellow,  streaked  with 
brown,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood.  The  juice  can  be  used  as  a 
black  lustrous  durable  varnish. 


Poison  Sumach 


396  TREES  IN   WINTER 


HOLLY 

American  Holly,  White  Holly. 

Ilex  opaca  Ait. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree,  rarely  reaching  30  ft.  in  height,  with 
a  trunk  diameter  of  15-18  inches;  larger  south  and  west;  with  slender 
horizontal  drooping  or  slightly  ascending  branches  forming  a  compact 
conical  head  with  spiny  evergreen  leaves. 

BARK — Light  gray,   smooth  becoming  somewhat  roughened  with   age. 

TAVIGS — Rather  slender,  grayish  to  yellowish  brown,  smooth  or  more 
or  less  downy.     LENTICELS — inconspicuous. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  more  than  2-ranked,  semi-oval.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — solitary. 

LEAVES — Thick,  evergreen,  elliptical  to  obovate,  spiny-tipped  and 
with  few  spiny  teeth  or  rarely  entire,  dull  yellowish-green  above,  pale 
and  yellower  beneath;  midrib  prominent  beneath,  with  short,  stout 
slightly  flne-downy  leaf-stalks,  groove  above.  STIPULES — minute, 
awl-shaped,  persistent. 

BUDS — Short,  blunt,  roundish,  more  or  less  downy,  terminal  bud 
pointed. 

FRUIT — Persistent  through  the  winter,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  dull 
red  or  rarely  yellow,  berry-like,  with  four  ribbed  nutlets.  Some  trees 
bear  only  sterile  flowers  and  therefore  never  produce  fruit. 

COMPARISONS — The  American  Holly  closely  resembles  the  cultivated 
European  Holly  \_Ilex  Aquifolium  L.]  but  the  leaves  of  this  latter 
species  are  described  as  glossier,  of  a  deeper  green  color,  more  wavy- 
margined  with  whitish  translucent  edges,  and  the  berries  as  of  a 
deeper  red  color. 

DISTRIBUTION — Generally  found  in  somewhat  sheltered  situations  in 
sandy  loam  or  in  low,  moist  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  water.  Massachusetts, 
southward  to  Florida;  westward  to  Missouri  and  the  bottom-lands  of 
eastern  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — reported  on  the  authority  of  Gray's 
Manual,  sixth  edition,  in  various  botanical  works  but  no  station  is 
known;  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — no  station  reported;  Massachu- 
setts— occasional  from  Quincy  southward  upon  the  mainland  and  the 
Island  of  Naushon;  rare  in  the  peat  swamps  of  Nantucket;  Connecticut 
— rare;  roadsides  and  thickets;  escaped  from  cultivation  or  possibly  na- 
tive; Rhode  Island — common  in  South  Kingston  and  Little  Compton  and 
sparingly  found  upon  Prudence  and  Conanicut  islands  in  Narragansett 
Bay. 

WOOD — Light,  tough,  not  strong,  close-grained,  nearly  white  when 
first  cut,  turning  brown  with  age  and  exposure,  with  thick  rather  light- 
er colored  sapwood,  valued  and  much  used  in  cabinet  making,  in  the 
interior  finish  of  houses  and  in  turnery;  the  branches  are  much  used  in 
Christmas  decorations. 


Holly 


398  TREES  IN  WINTER 


STRIPED  MAPLE 

Moosewood,  Whistlewood. 

Acer  pennsylvanicum  L. 


HABIT — A  shrub  or  small  tree  15-30  ft.  high  with  a  short  trunk  5-10 
inches  in  diameter  and  slender  straight  branches,  forming  in  northern 
New  England  a  large  part  of  the  underbrush  and  a  favorite  food  of 
moose  and  deer  whence  the  name  of  Moosewood. 

BARK — Rather  thin,  smooth,  reddish-brown  or  dark  green,  conspicu- 
ously streaked  longitudinally  with  narrow  white  lines,  at  length  dark 
gray,  often  transversely  warty. 

TWIGS — Stout,  smooth,  red  or  green;  year's  growth  marked  by  two 
circles  formed  by  scars  of  the  two  outer  pairs  of  bud-scales.  LENTI- 
CELS — inconspicuous.     PITH — brownish. 

LEAP-SCARS — Opposite;  wide,  broadly  V-shaped;  their  adjacent  edges 
nearly  meeting  and  forming  a  pair  of  short  stubby  teeth  separated  by 
a  more  or  less  well  developed  decurrent  ridge.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 3, 
generally  more  or  less  compounded  forming  often  5  to  7  separate 
bundle-scars. 

BUDS — Distinctly  stalked.  6-10  mm.  long  exclusive  of  the  rather  long 
stalk,  tapering  to  a  blunt  tip,  red,  shining,  more  or  less  4-sided;  terminal 
bud  larger  than  appressed  lateral  buds.  BUD-SCALES — the  thick,  red, 
single,  outer  pair  only  visible,  enclosing  an  inner  pair  of  thick  pale- 
hairy  scales,  within  which  are  enclosed  one  or  more  pairs  of  thin  green 
scales. 

FRUIT — In  long  drooping  terminal  racemes  with  thin  widely  spread- 
ing wings;  2-2.5  cm.  long,  seed-like  portion  rather  long  with  a  pit-like 
depression  on  one  side;  the  elongated  racemes  from  which  the  fruit 
has  fallen*often  remaining  on  tree  throughout  winter. 

COMPARISONS — Easily  distinguishable  at  all  times  from  all  other 
Maples  by  the  striking  white  streaks  in  the  young  bark  which  appear 
often  as  early  as  the  second  year  (see  photograph  of  twig),  and  persist 
even  on  comparatively  old  trunks.  The  large  stalked  buds  are  also 
characteristic.  The  brown  pith  of  the  twig  and  the  one-sided  pitting 
of  the  seed-like  portion  of  the  fruit  are  characters  which  distinguish 
the  Bush  Maples  (i.e.  the  Mountain  and  the  Striped)  from  our  other  spe- 
cies of  the  genus.  Forms  of  the  genus  Viburnum,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  shrubs,  resemble  somewhat  the  Bush  Maples,  but.  aside  from 
having  drupe-like  fruits,  may  generally  be  easily  distinguished  by 
bud  characters — some  having  naked,  others  scurfy  buds,  some  with 
the  first  pair  of  scales  shorter  than  the  bud  and  some  with  the  second 
pair  of  scales  smooth. 

DISTRIBUTION — Cool,  rocky  or  sandy  woods,  usually  in  the  shade 
of  other  trees.  Nova  Scotia  to  Lake  Superior;  south  on  shaded  moun- 
tain slopes  and  in  deep  ravines  to  Georgia;  west  to  Minnesota. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — abundant,  especially  northward  in  the 
forests;  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — common  in  highland  woods; 
Massachusetts — common  in  the  western  and  central  sections,  rare 
towards  the  coast;  Connecticut — occasional  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state,  becoming  rare  eastward  and  southward,  reaching  Ashford.  East 
Haddam.   Huntington   and   Redding;   Rhode   Island — frequent    northward. 

AVOOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  light  brown  with  thick  lighter 
colored  sapwood  of  30-40  layers  of  annual  growth. 


Striped  Maple 


400  TREES  IN  WINTER 


MOUNTAIN  MAPLE 

Acer  spicatum  Lam. 


HABIT — Shrub  or  small  bushy  tree  up  to  25  ft.  in  height  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  6-8  inches;  trunk  short,  straight,  with  slender  upright 
branches. 

BARK — Very  thin,  reddish-brown  to  dingy-gray,  smooth  or  slightly 
furrowed  or  warty. 

TWIGS — Slender,  bright  red  to  purple  on  upper  side  where  exposed 
to  the  light,  yellowish  to  greenish  on  shaded  under  side,  color  per- 
sisting for  several  years;  covered  especially  toward  tip  with  short 
appressed  grayish  hairs,  which  may  persist  in  scant  amount  for  several 
years  toward  upper  part  of  each  year's  growth.  Year's  growth  marked 
by  2-3  circles  formed  by  scars  of  bud-scales.  LENTICELS — few, 
inconspicuous.     PITH — brownish. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Opposite,  narrow",  V-shaped,  margined  by  a  lighter 
colored  and  more  or  less  raised  rim,  nearly  meeting.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 
3,  undivided. 

BUD — Stalked,  small,  slerjder,  pointed;  generally  under  6  mm.  in 
length  including  stalk,  red  or  greenish,  covered,  especially  the  terminal 
buds,  with  short  appressed  grayish  hairs;  terminal  bud  larger  than 
appressed  lateral  buds.  BUD-SCALES — thick,  2-3  pairs,  one  or  at  most 
2  pairs  visible,  the  second  pair  hairy. 

FRUIT — In  drooping  racemes  with  wide  more  or  less  spreading  wings 
about  2  cm.  or  less  long,  seed-like  portion  short,  with  pit-like  depres- 
sion on     one  side. 

COMPARISONS — Resembles  the  Striped  Maple  (which  see)  in  habit, 
distribution,  color  of  twigs  and  few  scales  to  the  stalked  buds.  It 
differs  from  the  Striped  Maple  in  absence  of  white  streaks  on  young 
bark  and  by  pale  down  on  twigs  and  especially  on  the  smaller  buds. 

DISTRIBUTION — Moist  rocky  hillsides  usually  in  the  shade  of  other 
trees.  From  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland  to  Saskatchewan,  along 
mountain   ranges  to  Georgia. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common,  especially  northward  in  the 
forests;  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont — common;  Massachusetts — rather 
common  in  western  and  central  sections,  occasional  eastward;  Connecti- 
cut— occasional  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  becomfng  rare  south- 
ward, reaching  East  Haddam,  Guilford  at  Bluff  Head,  Meriden  and 
Redding;    Rhode    Island — occasional    northward. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  light  brown  tinged  with  red,  with 
thick  lighter  colored  sapwood. 


Mountain  Maple 


402  TREES  IN  WINTER 

SUGAR  MAPLE 
Rock  Maple,  Hard  Maple. 

Acer  saccharum  Marsh. 
A.  saccliarinutn  Wang.,  not  L.  ;  A.  harbatum,  Michx. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  50-90  ft.  in  height,  with  trunk  diameter  of  2-5 
ft.;  trunk  more  or  less  continuous,  in  the  open  developing  at  8-10  ft. 
from  the  ground  stout,  erect  branches  which  form  in  young  trees  a 
broad  or  narrow  egg-shaped  head,  becoming  frequently  a  broad,  round- 
topped  head  when  older.  Leaves  sometimes  persistent  into  winter 
especially  on  lower  branches  of  young  trees. 

BARK — On  young  trunks  and  limbs  dark  gray,  with  tinge  of  buff, 
close  and  firm,  smooth  or  slightly  fissured,  becoming  deeply  furrowed 
into  long,  thick,  irregular  plates  which  often  curve  back  along  one 
edge,  giving  ploughed  appearance  to  the  trunk.  Some  trees  are  to  be 
found  with  yellowish-gray,  more  or  less  flaky  bark.  (See  upper  bark 
picture.) 

TWIGS — Slender,  shining,  reddish-brown  to  buff  tinged  with  orange, 
smooth,      LENTICELS — numerous,    pale,    conspicuous.      PITH — whitish. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  narrow  V-shaped;  outer  margins  of  a  pair 
nearly  meeting;  often  pale  downiness  within  leaf-scar,  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — 3,   sometimes  compound. 

BUDS — Conical  to  ovate,  sharp-pointed,  reddish-brown,  rather  downy 
especially  toward  tip;  terminal  bud  4-6  mm.  long;  about  twice  as  long 
as  appressed  lateral  buds,  BUD-SCALES — overlapping,  4-8  pairs  visible, 
their  margins  finely  hairy, 

FRUIT — 3-5  cm.  long,  in  short  terminal  clusters,  wings  broad,  paral- 
lel or  slightly  spreading. 

COMPARISONS — The  Sugar  Maple  is  readily  distinguished  from  other 
Maples  by  its  narrow,  conical,  sharp-pointed,  brown  buds  and  by  the 
large  number  of  scales  to  the  bud.  The  fruit  clusters  of  the  Sugar 
Maple  are  from  terminal  buds,  those  of  the  Red  and  the  Silver  Maple 
are  from  lateral  buds.  The  fruiting  of  the  Sugar  Maple  in  consequence 
causes  a  noticeable  forking  of  the  twigs  while  it  does  not  interrupt 
the  growth  in  the  Red  and  the  Silver  Maple.  Further,  fruit  stalks 
and  sometimes  even  the  fruits  themselves  are  persistent  into  winter 
on  the  Sugar  Maple  and  are  not  persistent  on  the  Red  and  the  Silver. 
The  Black  Maple  [Acer  saccharum,  var.  nigrum  (Michx.  f.)  Britton]  is 
found  in  the  northern  part  of  New  England  but  is  too  closely  related 
to  the  Sugar  Maple  to  be  considered  a  distinct  species.  It  has  darker 
buds  and  bark  than  the  type  form, 

DISTRIBUTION — Rich  woods  and  rocky  slopes,  frequently  planted  by 
roadsides.  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland;  westward  to  Lake  of  the 
Woods;  south  to  the  Gulf  States;  west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas 
and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Abundant,  distributed  throughout  the  woods, 
often  forming  in  the  northern  portions  extensive  upland  forests;  attain- 
ing great  size  in  the  mountainous  portions  of  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont,  and  in  the  Connecticut  river  valley;  less  frequent  toward  the 
seacoast. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  tough,  with  a  fine  satiny 
surface,  susceptible  of  receiving  a  good  polish,  light  brown  tinged  with 
red,  with  thin  sapwood  of  30-40  layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used 
for  the  interior  finish  of  buildings,  especially  for  floors,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture  and  in  turnery,  in  shipbuilding,  shoe-lasts  and  pegs 
and  largely  as  fuel.  Accidental  forms  with  the  grain  curled  and 
contorted,  known  as  Curly  Maple  and  Bird's  Eye  Maple  are  common 
and  highly  prized  in  cabinet  making.  Maple  sugar  is  principally  made 
from  the  sap*  of  this  tree. 


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404  TREES   IN   WINTER 


SILVER  MAPLE 

White,  River,  or  Soft  Maple. 

Acer  saccharinum  L. 

A.  dasycarpuni  Ehrh. 


HABIT — A  good  sized  tree  50-60  ft.  high  with  trunk  diameter  of 
2-5  ft.;  dividing  near  the  ground  into  several  slightly  spreading  limbs 
which  branch  further  up,  forming  a  very  wide,  broad-topped  head. 
Lateral  branchlets  strongly  tend  to  grow  downward  and  then  curve 
sharply  upward  at  their  tips. 

BARK — Smooth,  gray,  with  reddish  tinge  on  young  trunks  and 
branches;  on  older  trunks  reddish-brown  more  or  less  furrowed;  the 
surface  separating  into  long  thin  flakes  which  become  free  at  the  ends 
and  flake  off  exposing  the  redder  inner  layers. 

TW'IGS — Similar  to  those  of  Red  Maple  but  with  a  distinct  rank  odor 
when  freshly  cut  or  broken. 

liEAF-SCARS — Similar   to   those   of   Red  Maple. 

BUDS — Similar  to  those  of  the  Red  Maple  but  generally  somewhat 
larger,  the  flower  buds  more  densely  clustered  with  a  larger  number  of 
buds  in  a  cluster. 

FRUIT— Large,  4-7  cm.  long,  wings  spreading,  in  lateral  clusters, 
ripening  in  early  spring  and  therefore  difficult  to  find  in  winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Silver  Maple  closely  resembles  the  Red  Maple  in 
twig  characters  but  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  latter  by 
the  rank  odor  of  the  fresh  twigs  when  broken.  The  flakiness  of  the 
bark  of  the  Silver  Maple  is  also  distinctive.  The  bending  down  of  the 
branchlets  with  a  sharp  upward  curve  at  their  tips  while  much  more 
marked  in  the  Silver  Maple  occurs  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  Red  and 
therefore  cannot  be  depended  upon  alone  as  a  distinctive  character.  If 
the  flower  buds  be  dissected  out  and  examined  with  a  hand-lens  the 
immature  flowers  of  the  Silver  Maple  will  be  found  to  be  surrounded  by 
a  cup-like  calyx  which  in  the  Red  Maple  is  made  up  of  separate 
divisions.     See  under  Red  Maple  for  Comparisons  with  other  species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Along  river  banks  and  in  moist,  deep-soiled  woods, 
not  typically  in  swamps;  often  planted  for  ornament  under  the  name 
of  White  Maple.  Infrequent  from  New  Brunswick  to  Ottawa,  abundant 
from  Ottawa  throughout  Ontario;  south  to  the  Gulf  states;  west  to 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  Oklahoma;  attaining  its  maximum 
size  in  the  basins  of  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries;  rare  towards  the 
seacoast  throughout  the   whole   range. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Occasional  throughout;  most  common  and  best 
developed  upon  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  at  low  altitudes. 

WOOD — Hard,  strong,  close-grained,  easily  worked,  rather  brittle,  pale 
brown  with  thick  sapwood  of  40-50  layers  of  annual  growth;  now  some- 
times used  for  flooring  and  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  Sugar  is 
occasionally  made  from  the  sap. 


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Silver  Maple 


406  TREES  IN-  WINTER 

RED  MAPLE 

Swamp,  Soft  or  White  Maple. 

Acer  rubrum  L. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree.  40-50  ft.  high,  occasionally  in  swamps 
reaching  75  ft.  in  height,  with  trunk  diameter  of  2-4  ft.;  branching  low 
down  and  forming  an  oblong  rather  compact  head,  frequently  largest  at 
the  top  but  sometimes  broad  at  the  base.  Branches  slender  as  well 
as  branchlets,  the  latter  showing  slight  tendency  to  turn  up  at  their 
tips;  horizontal  or  even  declined  limbs  common  at  base;  upper  branches 
appearing  decidedly  gray  and  often  resembling  those  of  the  Beech  if 
viewed  with  the  light. 

BARK — Smooth,  light  gray  on  young  trunks  and  branches;  on  older 
trunks  very  dark  gray,  roughened  into  long  ridges,  sometimes  some- 
what shaggy  and  separating  in  long  plates  (see  right  hand  bark 
photograph);  in  some  localities  remaining  smooth  till  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter. 

TWIGS — Rather  slender,  bright  or  dark  red,  shining;  odorless  when 
cut.  LENTICELS — numerous,  conspicuous,  PITH — pinkish  toward  upper 
part,   at  least  of  each  year's  growth  beyond  the  second. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Broad,  U  to  V-shaped,  adjacent  edges  not  meeting. 
BUNDLE-SCARS— 3. 

BUDS — Red,  blunt-pointed,  broadly  oval-ovate  to  spherical  in  flower 
buds,  generally  under  5  mm.  long,  short-stalked;  flower  buds  numerous, 
stout,  collateral  (one  on  either  side  of  smaller  axillary  bud).  BUD- 
SCALES — 4  pairs  or  generally  fewer  visible  with  pale  hairs  on  margins, 
outer    pair    of    scales    not    over   half    covering    the    bud. 

FRUIT — Small,  generally  under  3  cm.  long,  wings  spreading,  in  lateral 
clusters,    ripening   in    spring   and   therefore   difficult   to    find    in   winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Maple  closely  resembles  the  Silver  Maple 
in  the  winter  condition.  See  Silver  Maple  under  Comparisons  for 
differences.  The  Red  and  the  Silver  Maple  are  distinguishable  from  our 
other  Maples  except  the  Box  Elder  by  presence  of  collateral  buds,  and 
the  numerous  clusters  of  these  flower  buds  give  a  characteristic  beaded 
appearance  to  the  twigs  against  the  sky;  from  the  Striped  and  Mountain 
Maples  by  the  larger  number  of  scales  exposed  in  the  bud;  from  the 
Striped  and  the  Norway  and  Sycamore  Maples  by  much  smaller  buds; 
from  the  Mountain  Maple  and  the  Box  Elder  by  their  smooth  outer  bud- 
scales;  from  the  Sugar  Maple  by  their  red  twigs  and  by  their  red,  blunt 
buds   with   few   scales.      See   under   Sugar   Maple. 

DISTRIBUTION — Borders  of  streams,  in  low  lands,  wet  woods  and 
swamps  or  sometimes  in  dry  ground,  of  rapid  growth  and  a  favorite 
for  park  planting  but  usually  not  adapted  to  city  streets.  Nova  Scotia 
to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods;  south  to  southern  Florida;  west  to  Dakota, 
Nebraska  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Common  throughout  from  the  sea  to  an  altitude 
of    3,000    ft.    on    Katahdin. 

AVOOD — Very  heavy,  close-grained,  not  strong,  light  brown  often 
slightly  tinged  with  red,  with  thick,  rather  lighter  colored  sapwood; 
used  in  large  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  chairs  and  other  furni- 
ture,   in   turnery,    for   woodenware   and   gun-stocks, 




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408  TREES  IN  WINTER 


NORWAY  MAPLE 

Acer  platanoides  L. 


HABIT — A  mediumly  large  tree  reaching  in  Europe  100  ft,  in  height, 
with   round    spreading   head, 

BARK — Dark,  broken  into  firm,  close,  narrow  ridges  which  run 
together  and  enclose  small  diamond-shaped  spaces,  somewhat  resembling 
bark  of  White  Ash  but  the  ridges  and  diamond-shaped  spaces  are  finer. 

TWIGS — Stout,  generally  smooth  and  shining,  brown  to  greenish  or 
yellowish-brown,  branchlets  of  two  or  more  years  growth  and  even 
vigorous  season's  shoots  plainly  streaked  with  fine,  irregular,  longitu- 
dinal cracks  in  bark. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  narrow  V-shaped,  half  encircling  the  twig, 
the  adjacent  edges  of  opposite  leaf-scars  meeting  and  continued  upward 
into  a  short  tooth.     BUNDLE-SCARS — 3. 

BUDS — Completely  red  or  yellowish-green  toward  the  base,  sometimes 
whole  bud  strongly  tinged  with  yellowish-green;  terminal  bud  larger 
than  lateral  buds,  5-S  mm.  long,  more  than  %  as  broad  as  long, 
oval  to  ovate;  generally  with  a  pair  of  comparatively  large  lateral  buds 
below  terminal  bud;  lateral  buds  small,  appressed.  BUD-SCALES — 
thick,  more  or  less  keeled,  margin  very  finely  hairy;  scales  to  terminal 
bud  generally  5  pairs — only  2,  or  at  most  3  pairs  showing,  smooth  but 
enclosing  2  pairs  which  are  thickly  covered  with  dark  rusty-brown 
hairs;    in    small   buds   sometimes    4    pairs   smooth   and    1    pair   hairy, 

FRUIT — Generally  over  5  cm.  long,  seed-like  portion  flattish,  with 
wings  diverging   in   a   straight   line. 

COMPARISONS— The  Norway  Maple  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
Sycamore  Maple  by  the  redness  of  its  buds,  the  brown  hairiness  of  the 
inner  scales,  the  ridging  of  the  bark  and  the  divergence  of  the  wings 
of  the  fruit;. from  the  native  Maples  by  the  large  buds  and  the  character- 
istically ridged   bark. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  European  form  extensively  cultivated  as  a  shade 
tree  being  more  tolerant  of  unfavorable  city  conditions  than  most 
other  forms.  Its  low  head,  however,  is  a  disadvantage  for  city  street 
planting. 

WOOD — Moderately  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  white  or  yellowish- 
white,  fairly  durable  under  cover  but  of  short  duration  in  the  open;  used 
in  Europe  by  joiners,  for  finer  wheelwrights'  work,  for  carving,  for 
mathematical  instruments  and  for  various  other  purposes. 


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Norway  Maple 


410  TKEES  IX  WINTER 


SYCAMORE  MAPLE 

Acer  Pseudo-Platanus  L. 


HABIT — A  rather  large  tree  of  vig-orous  growth,  reaching  in  Europe 
120   ft.    in   height,    with   large   spreading   head. 

BARK — Dark  reddish-brown,  flaking  off  in  squarish  or  short  oblong 
scales. 

TW^IGS — Stout,    smooth,    shining,    yellowish-greenish   to    brown. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  shallow  V-shaped;  adjacent  edges  of  opposite 
leaf-scars  not  meeting.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 3,  elongated  lengthwise  with 
the  leaf-scar  or  compound. 

BUDS — Green,  sometimes  slightly  reddish,  terminal  bud  larger  than 
lateral  buds,  7-12  mm.  long,  broadly  oval  to  ovate  to  nearly  spherical, 
much  more  than  %  as  wide  as  long;  lateral  buds  divergent.  BUD- 
SCALES — more  or  less  keeled,  with  dark  brown  edging,  dark  pointed 
apex  and  finely  hairj^  margin;  scales  to  terminal  bud,  6-7  pairs,  3  pairs 
at  least  generally  visible,  the  outer  scales  smooth,  the  2  inner  scales 
thickly  covered  with   silvery  white  hairs. 

FRUIT — Generally  less  than  5  cm.  long,  seed-like  portion  nearly 
spherical,  wings  making  about  a  right  angle  resembling  fruit  of  the 
Sugar  Maple. 

COMPARISONS — Distinguished  from  the  Norway  Maple  by  the  green 
buds,  having  outer  scales  with  dark  margins  and  white-hairy  inner 
scales,  and  by  the  flaky  bark;  from  the  native  Maples  by  the  larger 
buds  and  the  peculiar  bark. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  European  form,  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
as    a   shade    tree    but    less    extensively    than    the    Norway    Maple. 

WOOD — Similar  in  character  to  that  of  the  Norway  Maple  and  used 
for  the  same  purposes. 


Sycamore  Maple 


412  ;  TREES   IN  WINTER 

BOX  ELDER 
Ash-leaved  Maple,  Manitoba  Maple. 

Acer  Negundo  L. 
Negundo  aceroides  Moench  ;  Negundo  Negundo  Karst. 


HABIT — A  medium  sized  tree  40-50  ft.  high  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  1-2  ft.;  dividing-  low  down,  sometimes  only  a  few  feet  from  the 
ground,  into  a  number  of  stout  spreading  branches,  forming  a  wide 
head. 

BARK — Pale  gray  or  light  brown,  broken  by  rather  shallow  furrows 
nto  narrow,  firm,  close,  irregular  fiat-topped  ridges  which  are  further 
cracked  horizontally;  bark  of  young  trunks  and  branches  smooth,  with 
raised    buff    lenticels,    which    are    horizontally    more    or    less    elongated. 

TWIGS — Stout,  reddish-purple  or  green,  smooth,  polished  or  often  with 
a  whitish  bloom  which  readily  rubs  off.  LENTICELS — conspicuous, 
forming  somewhat  longitudinally  elongated,   scattered,   raised  buff  dots. 

•  LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  narrow  V-shaped,  margined  by  a  lighter 
colored  outer  rim,  half  encircling  the  twig,  the  adjacent  edges  of 
opposite  leaf-scars  meeting  and  prolonged  upward  into  a  conspicuous 
narrow  tooth,  the  inner  margin  often  hairy.  BUNDLE-SCARS — large, 
3  in  number,   generally  undivided. 

BUDS — Short-stalked,  red.  more  or  less  white-woolly,  the  terminal 
buds  6  mm.  or  less  long,  rather  longer  than  the  appressed  lateral  buds. 
BUD-SCALES — outer  pair  less  densely  woolly  than  inner  pairs,  grown 
together  at  base,  entirely  enclosing  the  bud  or  slightly  gaping  and 
exposing  next  inner  pair;  outer  scales  of  lateral  buds  often  distended 
by  formation   in  their   axils   of  stout   collateral    buds. 

FRUIT — 3.5-5  cm.  long  in  drooping  racemes,  wings  spreading  at  a 
sharp  angle,  seed-like  portion  long,  flattish;  fruit  stalks  remaining  on 
tree  throughout  winter.  The  Box  Elder  is  strictly  dioecious,  therefore 
fruit   is   not  borne  by   all  individuals. 

COMPARISONS — The  stout  brightly  colored  red  or  green  twigs  and 
branchlets  often  covered  with  a  bloom  the  first  year  and  the  downy 
buds  with  generally  collateral  buds  present  on  some  of  the  twigs,  as 
well  as  the  narrow  tooth  formed  at  the  junction  of  adjacent  deeply 
V-shaped  leaf-scars  render  the  Box  Elder  easily  distinguishable  in 
the   winter   condition. 

DISTRIBUTION — Banks  of  streams,  lakes  and  borders  of  swamps;  a 
rapid  grower  and  often  planted  as  a  shade  tree,  thrives  best  in  moist 
soil  but  is  tolerant  of  dry  situations.  Infrequent  from  eastern  Ontario 
to  Lake  of  the  Woods;  abundant  from  Manitoba  westward  to  the  Rocky 
mountains  south  of  55  degrees  north  latitude;  south  to  Florida;  west 
to  the  Rocky  and  Wahsatch  mountains,  reaching  its  greatest  size  in  the 
river  bottoms  of  the  Ohio   and   its  tributaries. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — along  the  St.  John  and  its  tributaries, 
especially  in  the  French  villages,  the  commonest  roadside  tree,  brought 
in  from  the  wild  state  according  to  the  people  there;  thoroughly  estab- 
lished young  trees,  originating  from  planted  specimens,  m  various  parts 
of  the  state;  New  Hampshire — occasional  along  the  Connecticut,  abun- 
dant at  ^iValpole;  extending  northward  as  far  as  South  Charlestown; 
Vermont — shores  of  the  Winooski  river  and  of  Lake  Champlain;  Con- 
necticut— rare  or  local;  apparently  native  along  the  Housatonic  river 
from  Oxford  to  Salisbury;  escaped  from  cultivation  at  Putnam,  Groton, 
Southington,   Wethersfield  and  Norwalk. 

T\-OOD — Light,  soft,  close-grained,  not  strong,  creamy  white  with 
thick  hardly  distinguishable  sapwood;  occasionally  manufactured  into 
cheap  furniture  and  sometimes  used  for  the  interior  finish  of  houses 
for  woodenware,  cooperage  and  paper  pulp.  Small  quantities  or 
maple   sugar   are   occasionally   made   from   this   tree. 


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Box  Elder 


414  TREES  IN  WINTER. 


HORSE-CHESTNUT 

Aesculus  Hippocastanum  L. 


HABIT — A  good  sized  tree  reaching  70  ft.  in  height  with  a  trunk 
diameter  of  2-3  ft.;  sometimes  with  trunk  continuous  into  top  of  tree 
but  more  frequently  dividing  soon  into  a  number  of  large  slightly 
spreading  limbs  forming  an  oblong  or  broadly  conical  head,  in  old 
age  with  drooping  lower  branches  with  upturned  tips;  spray  stiff  and 
coarse  with  conspicuous  terminal  buds. 

BARK — Dull  brown  becoming  shallowly  fissured  into  irregular  plate- 
like   scales    somewhat    resembling    bark    of   Apple    Tree. 

TAVIGS — Stout,  reddish-yellowish  to  grayish-brown,  smooth  or  slightly 
fine-downy.  SCALE-SCARS — marking  annual  growth,  distinct.  LEN- 
TICELS — large,  conspicuous,  scattered.     PITH — wide. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  inversely  triangular.  STIPULE- 
SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 3-9,  generally  7,  large  conspicuous, 
in    a    single    curved    line. 

BUDS — Large,  dark  reddish-brown,  varnished  with  sticky  gum; 
terminal  buds  often  fiower  buds,  larger  than  laterals,  1.5  to  3  cm. 
long;  when  a  flower  bud,  a  terminal  scar  is  left  and  the  twig  forks  from 
growth  of  bud  pair  below.  BUD-SCALES — opposite  in  4  rows,  about 
5  pairs  visible  in  terminal  bud,  thick  with  thin  margins,  the  lower 
pairs  more  or  less  keeled  and  often  with  abrupt  sharp  points. 

FRUIT — A  weak-spined  bur,  containing  the  large  seeds  marked  with 
a  large  conspicuous   scar;   not  remaining  on  the   tree   during  winter. 

COMPARISONS — Two  western  trees  with  buds  free  from  resinous 
coating,  i.e.  the  Fetid  or  Ohio  Buckeye  lAesculus  glabra  Willd.]  and  the 
Sweet  Buckeye  lAesculus  octandra  Marsh.],  are  sometimes  planted  in 
New  England.  They  belong  with  the  Horse-chestnut  to  the  genus 
Aesculus  which  is  readily  distinguished  from  other  New  England  genera 
by  the  large  size  of  the  twigs,  buds,  opposite  leaf-scars  and  bundle- 
scars. 

DISTRIBUTION — A  native  of  southern  Asia  much  planted  as  an 
ornamental  shade  tree  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  and  naturalized 
in  many  places. 

AVo'oD — Light,  soft,  very  close-grained,  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with 
yellow;  in  Europe  used  by  carvers  and  turners. 


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Horse-chestnut 


416  TREES  IN  WINTER 


LINDEN 
Basswood,  Lime,  Whitewood,  Beetree. 

Tilia  americana  L. 


HABIT — A  large  tree  50-75  ft.,  to  100  ft.  in  height  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Connecticut  river,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of  2-4  ft.;  with 
a  straight  trunk  generally  continuous  into  the  top,  beset  with  numerous 
slender  branches,  those  at  the  base  often  strongly  drooping,  forming  a 
narrow  pyramidal  head  as  shown  in  habit  picture  or  more  commonly 
becoming  broadly  ovate  or  round-topped  and  oblong.  [Habit  picture 
Is  taken  from  the  European  Linden,  which  resembles  the  American 
species    ik    habit.] 

BARK — Dark  gray,  firm  but  easily  cut,  in  young  stems  smooth 
(upper  part  of  smaller  trunk  in  photograph),  becoming  fissured  into  long 
rather  narrow  flat-topped  ridges,  divided  by  characteristically  trans- 
verse cracks  into  short  blocks  (lower  bark  picture),  becoming  with  age 
deeply   furrowed   with  broader   more    rounded   ridges    (older   trunk). 

TAVIGS — Rather  slender,  smooth,  shining,  bright  red  or  greenish 
or  covered  with  a  gray  skin;  generally  zigzag,  somewhat  mucilaginous 
when  chewed;  fibres  in  inner  bark  long,  tough,  appearing  as  blunt 
conical  masses  in  cross  section  of  older  twig,  and  in  surface  sections 
of  the  bark  as  whitish  wavy  lines  enclosing  lens-shaped  darker  masses 
which  show  externally  as  wrinkled  depressions  of  the  bark.  LENTICELS 
— scattered,    dark,    oblong. 

LEAF-SCARS — Alternate,  2-ranked;  large,  elevated,  semi-oval  to  ellip- 
tical. STIPULE-SCARS — generally  narrow,  often  showing  bundle-scars. 
BUNDLE-SCARS — few  to  many,  scattered  or  in  a  ring  or  forming  a 
single   curved   line,   showing   as    3    in  deep   surface   section. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent;  lateral  buds  large  to  medium,  ovate, 
3-10  mm.  long,  somewhat  flattened,  often  lopsided,  divergent,  dark  red 
or  sometimes  green,  smooth  or  slightly  downy  at  apex;  mucilaginous 
when  chewed.  BUD-SCALES — rarely  more  than  2-3  visible,  thick, 
rounded  at  the  back,  not  2-ranked  nor  in  pairs. 

FRUIT — About  the  size  of  a  pea,  woody,  spherical,  singly  or  in  clus- 
ters of  several  with  a  common  stalk  attached  midway  to  a  leafy 
bract,   sometimes  remaining  on  the  tree  into  the  winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  American  Linden,  more  commonly  knov/n  among 
lumbermen  as  Basswood,  differs  but  slightly  in  winter  or  summer 
condition  from  the  European  species  \_Tilia  vulgaris  Hayne]  which  is 
much  cultivated  as  a  street  tree.  Another  Basswood  [Tilia  Michauxii 
Nutt.]  has  been  reported  in  New  England  only  from  Connecticut,  but 
is  rare  in  this  state.  The  Lindens  are  sometimes  confused  with  the 
Elms,  but  aside  from  the  different  habit  of  growth  the  Linden  has 
larger,  bright  colored  buds  with  2-3  scales  only  showing,  while  the  Elms 
have  manv  scales  visible  and  their  bundle-scars  are  depressed.  From 
the  Chestnut,  the  Linden  is  best  distinguished  by  its  twigs  and  buds 
which   are   mucilaginous   when   chewed. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  rich  woods  and  loamy  soils  and  often  cultivated. 
Southern  Canada  from  New  Brunswick  to  Lake  Winnipeg;  south  along 
the  mountains  to  Georgia;  west  to  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Throughout,  frequent  from  the  sea  coast  to 
altitudes  of  1,000  ft.,  rare  from   1,000  to   2,000  ft. 

WOOD — Soft,  straight-grained,  light  brown  faintly  tinged  with  red, 
with  thick  hardly  distinguishable  sapwood  of  55-65  layers  of  annual 
growth,  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper-pulp;  under  the  name 
of  Whitewood  largely  used  for  woodenware,  cheap  furniture,  the  panels 
of  carriages,  and  for  inner  soles  of  shoes.  The  tough  inner  bark 
furnishes    fibres    for   mats,    cordage,    etc. 


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Linden 


418  TREES  IN  WINTER 


FLOWERING  DOGWOOD 

Boxwood,  Dogwood,  Flowering  Cornel. 
Cornus  florida  L. 


HABIT — A  small  tree  15-30  ft.  in  height,  with  a  trunk  diameter  of 
6-10  inches;  developing-  a  low  spreading  bushy  head  with  slender  up- 
right or  spreading  branches  and  divergent  sinously  curted  branchlets 
turning  upward  near  the  end  and  bearing  on  their  upper  sides  clusters 
of  fruiting  twigs  terminated  by  large  conspicuous  erect  flower  buds. 

BARK — Dark  brown  to  blackish,  ridged  and  broken  into  small  4-sided 
or  rounded  plate-like  scales,  resembling  alligator  leather  in  appear- 
ance. 

TAVIGS — Slender,  bright  red  or  yellowish-green,  smooth  or  generally 
appearing  more  or  less  mealy  from  minute  closely  appressed  gray 
hairs;  with  bitter  taste.  LENTICELS — inconspicuous.  PITH — gritty, 
granular. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  on  twigs  of  the  season  raised  on  bases  of 
leaf-stalks  with  deep  ^''-shaped  notch  between,  on  older  growth 
practically  encircling  twig.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE- 
SCARS — 3,  in  leaf-scars  of  the  season  often  confluent  and  first  seen  in 
section   through   persistent   base   of  leaf-stalk. 

BUDS — Lateral  buds  minute,  covered  by  persistent  bases  of  leaf- 
stalks; terminal  leaf-buds  flattened-conical,  red,  generally  downy  at 
least  at  apex,  covered  by  a  single  pair  of  opposite  pointed  scales 
rounded  at  back  and  joined  below  for  %  their  length;  flowering 
buds  very  abundant,  terminal,  large,  spherical  to  inverted  flat  turnip- 
shaped,  4-8  mm.  broad,  covered  by  two  opposite  pairs  of  bud-scales, 
the  first  2-3  pairs  of  leaves  below  the  flower  buds  generally  reduced  to 
narrow-pointed  persistent  scales. 

FRUIT — Scarlet,  oblong,  about  1.5  cm.  long,  f.eshy,  with  a  grooved 
stone,  clustered,  ripening  in  October  and  generally  not  remaining  on 
the   tree   during   winter. 

COMPARISONS — The  Flowering  Dogwood  differs  from  its  relative  the 
Alternate-leaved  Dogwood  [Cornus  alternifolia  L.]  by  its  opposite  leaf- 
scars,  from  the  Bush  Maples, — the  Striped  and  the  Mountain — which  it 
somewhat  resembles  in  twig  characters,  by  its  alligator  bark,  the 
presence  of  but  a  single  pair  of  scales  to  terminal  leaf-bud,  by  the 
persistent  bases  of  leaf-stalks  covering  the  lateral  buds  and  by  the 
generally  abundant  large  flower  buds. 

DISTRIBUTIOIV — Woodlands,  rocky  hillsides,  moist,  gravelly  ridges, 
frequently  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree.  Provinces  of  Quebec  and 
Ontario;   south  to  Florida;  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — Fayette  Ridge,  Kenebec  county;  New 
Hampshire — along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  very  near  the  Connecticut 
river,  rarely  farther  north  than  its  junction  with  the  West  river; 
Vermont — southern  and  southwestern  sections,  rare;  Massachusetts — 
occasional  throughout  the  state,  common  in  the  Connecticut  river 
valley,  frequent  eastward;  Connecticut — occasional,  local  or  frequent; 
Rhode  Island — common. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  brown  sometimes  chang- 
ing to  shades  of  green  and  red,  with  lighter  colored  sapwood  of  30-40 
layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  in  turnery,  for  the  bearings  of 
machinery,  the  hubs  of  small  wheels,  barrel  hoops,  the  handles  of 
tools  and  occasionally  for  engravers'  blocks. 


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420  TREES  IN   WINTER 


TUPELO 
Pepperidge,  Sour  or  Black  Gum. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  Marsh. 
N.  multiflora  Wang. 


HABIT — A  tree  20-50  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of  1-2  ft, 
or  in  the  forest  60-80  ft.  high,  reaching  greater  dimensions  further 
south;  generally  easily  recognized  from  the  manner  of  branching  alone, 
though  extremely  variable  in  outline.  The  trunk  is  erect,  generally 
continuous  well  into  the  top,  lower  branches  developed  low  down  on 
trunk,  horizontal  or  declined  often  to  the  ground,  upper  branches 
horizontal  or  slightly  ascending,  with  numerous  lateral  branches  and 
stubby  branchlets  forming  horizontal  layers.  The  branches  are  slender 
and  exceedingly  numerous,  more  so  than  in  any  other  of  our  trees.  The 
head  may  be  short,  cylindrical  and  flat-topped,  or  low  and  broader  than 
tall  (see  plate  lower  habit  picture),  or  more  commonly  as  when  crowded 
In  the  forest,  narrow,  pvramidal  or  conical  (see  plate  upper  habit 
picture)    or  inversely   conical  and   broad  and  flat  at   top. 

BARK — On  young  tree,  grayish,  flaky,  on  older  trunks  darker  with 
deeper  furrows  and  ridges  broken  into  somewhat  regular  hexagonal 
blocks. 

TAV^IGS — Slender,  smooth  or  nearly  so,  grayish  to  light  reddish-brown, 
producing  numerous  short  slow-growing  spurs  crowded  with  leaf-scars 
on  the  sides  of  more  rapidly  grown  shoots.  LENTICELS — scattered, 
inconspicuous.  PITH — with  thin  transverse  woody  partitions  through 
the    ground-mass,    best    seen    with    aid    of   a    hand-lens. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Alternate,  generally  more  than  2-ranked,  distinct, 
broadly  crescent-shaped.  STIPULE-SCARS — absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — 
conspicuous,  3,  simple  or  slightly  compound  but  in  3  distinct  groups, 
generally  depressed,    whitish   in  contrast   to   reddish-brown  of  leaf-scar. 

BUDS — Ovate,  dark  reddish-brown,  smooth  or  slightly  downy  at  tip, 
the  lateral  buds  generally  blunt-pointed,  divergent,  on  vigorous  shoots 
slightly  raised  on  a  cushion  of  the  bark,  sometimes  on  vigorous  shoots 
developing  a  superposed  accessory  bud  larger  than  the  axillary  one; 
terminal  bud  slightly  larger  than  laterals,  about  5  mm.  long,  generally 
sharper  pointed,  wvth  slightly  curved  apex.  BUD-SCALES — 3-4  visible, 
broadly   ovate,    rounded,    terminally   somewhat   keeled   and   pointed. 

FRUIT — A  small  bluish  drupe  ripening  in  autumn. 

COMPARISONS — Although  the  outline  of  the  crown  differs  widely, 
the  numerous  slender  horizontally  layered  branches  generally  render 
the  Tupelo  distinguishable  at  a  distance.  Its  stubby  branchlets  remind 
one  somewhat  of  the  Pear  Tree.  Its  broad  leaf-scars  and  3  conspicuous 
bundle-scars  in  connection  with  the  woody  partitions  in  the  pith  will 
prevent  its  being  confused  with  any  other  tree. 

DISTRIBUTION — In  rich,  moist  soil,  in  swamps  and  on  the  borders 
of  rivers  and  ponds.  Ontario;  south  to  Florida;  west  to  Michigan, 
Missouri,    and    Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — Waterville  on  the  Kennebec,  the  most 
northern  station  yet  reported;  New  Hampshire — most  common  in  the 
Merrimac  valley,  seldom  seen  north  of  the  White  Mountains;  Vermont — 
occasional;  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island — rather  com- 
mon. 

WOOD — Heavy,  soft,  strong,  fine-grained,  very  tough,  difficult  to  split, 
not  durable,  light  yellow  or  nearly  white,  with  thick  lighter  colored 
sapwood  of  80-100  layers  of  annual  growth;  used  for  the  hubs  of  wheels, 
rollers  in  glass  factories,  ox-yokes,  wharf  piles  and  sometimes  for  the 
soles  of  shoes. 


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422  TREES  IN"  WINTER 


WHITE  ASH 

Fraxinus  americana  L. 


HABIT — In  the  forests  a  large  tree  with  straight,  tall  trunk,  free 
from  branches  to  near  the  narrow  crown.  50-75  ft.  in  height  with  trunk 
diameter  of  2-3  ft.,  reaching  over  100  ft.  in  height  in  the  Ohio  basin;  in 
the  open  a  broader  tree  with  ovate,  round-topped  or  pyramidal  to  oblong 
outline,  the  trunk  at  times  continuous  into  the  crown  but  generally- 
dividing  comparatively  low  down  into  a  number  of  slightly  spreading 
limbs  with  slender  spreading  branches,  the  lower  more  or  less  drooping 
and  recurved.  The  coarse  twigs  are  formed  at  a  broad  angle  approach- 
ing a  right  angle  with  the  branch  and  this  cross-shaped  branching 
seen    against    the    sky   is    an    easy    means    of   identification. 

BARK — Grayish-brown,  characteristically  furrowed  with  narrow,  flat- 
topped,  firm,  irregular,  longitudinal  ridges  which  are  transversely 
broken,  more  or  less  confluent  and  enclose  diamond-shaped  hollows; 
old   trunks   becoming  smoother   by  scaling   off  of  the   ridges. 

TAVIGS — Stout,  smooth  and  shining,  grayish  or  greenish-brown  often 
with  a  slight  bloom,  very  brittle,  flattened  at  nodes  at  right  angles  to 
leaf-scars.      L.ENTICELS — large,    pale,    scattered    dots. 

LEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  conspicuous,  raised,  crescent-shaped  to 
nearly  semi-circular  but  always  notched  at  the  top.  STIPULE-SCARS — • 
absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — numerous,  minute,  in  a  curved  line,  often 
indistinct,    sometimes    more    or    less    confluent. 

BUDS — Stout,  semi-spherical  to  broadly  ovate,  scurfy,  and  more  or 
less  slightly  downy,  rusty  to  dark  brown  to  sometimes  almost  -black; 
on  rapidly  growing  shoots,  superposed  buds  often  present;  terminal 
bud  larger  than  the  laterals,  about  5  mm.  or  less  long,  blunt,  generally 
decidedly  broader  than  long.  A  pair  of  lateral  buds  generally  present  at 
end  of  twig  nearly  on  level  with  terminal  bud.  their  leaf-scars  causing 
terminal  swelling  of  twig.  BUD-SCALES — generally  broadly  ovate, 
opposite  in  pairs,  2-3  pairs  visible,  those  of  terminal  bud  with  sharp, 
abrupt,    sometimes   deciduous   points. 

FRUIT — Winged,  2-5  cm.  long,  the  seed-bearing  portion  round  in 
section,  marginless  below  with  much  longer  wing  dilating  from  near 
the  tip,  hanging  on  the  tree  in  clusters  into  the  winter.  The  Ash 
is  dioecious  and  consequently  only  the  female  trees  ever  bear  fruit. 
Since  further  these  do  not  bear  every  season,  the  fruit  does  not  form 
a  very  usable  winter  character  for  any  of  the  Ashes.  The  staminate 
flowers  on  the  male  trees  are  frequently  infected  by  mites  and  persist 
through   the   winter   in   blackish    distorted   clusters. 

COMPARISONS — The  White  Ash  is  hardly  to  be  confused  with  the 
few  other  genera  of  trees  that  have  opposite  leaf-scars.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  Ashes  figured  here  in  that  its  leaf-scar  is 
generally  narrow  and  deeply  concave,  further  from  the  Black  Ash  by  its 
rough  ridged  bark  and  generally  rusty  and  blunter  bud-scales  and  from 
the  Red  Ash  by  its  smooth,  generally  shiny  twigs. 

DISTRIBUTION — Rich  or  moist  woods,  fields  and  pastures  near 
streams.  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  to  Ontario;  south  to  Florida; 
west  to  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  Texas. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — very  common,  often  forming  large  forest 
areas;  in"  the  other  New  England  states,  widely  distributed,  but  seldom 
occurring  in   large  masses. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  strong,  close-grained,  tough  and  brown  with 
thick  lighter  colored  sapwood;  used  in  large  quantity  in  the  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements  for  the  handles  of  tools,  in  carriage  building, 
for  oars  dnd  furniture,  and  in  the  interior  finish  of  buildings;  the  most 
valuable  of  the  American  species  as  a  timber  tree. 


White  Ash 


424 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


RED  ASH 
Brown,  or  River  Ash. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marsh. 
F.  pubescens  Lam. ;  F.  DarUngtonii  Britton. 


HABIT — A  medium  to  large-sized  tree,  30-70  ft.  in  height  with  a 
trunk  diameter  of  1-3  ft.;  in  general  appearance  resembling  the  White 
Ash. 

BARK — Similar  to  that  of  White  Ash  but  with  somewhat  shallower 
furrows. 

TWIGS — More  slender  than  those  of  White  Ash,  densely  velvety- 
downy  in  typical  condition  but  often  without  down  especially  in  the 
Green  Ash    [Fraxinus  jiennsylvanica,  var.   lanceolata    (Bork.)    Sarg.]. 

L.EAP-SCARS — Semi-circular,  upper  margin  rarely  somewhat  de- 
pressed. 

BUDS — Dark  rusty  brown,  smaller  and  narrower  than  those  of  the 
White  Ash,  about  2  pairs  of  scales  visible  to  terminal  bud. 

FRUIT — Seed-bearing  portion  round  in  section,  marginless  below  with 
wing  extending  down  its  sides. 

COMPARISONS — The  Red  Ash  is  not  distinguished  by  most  people 
from  the  White  Ash  which  it  closely  resembles.  The  downiness  of  its 
twigs  which  is  considered  its  chief  specific  character  is  not  constant. 
The  shape  of  its  leaf-scar,  in  general  semi-circular  with  upper  margin 
not  concave,  is  perhaps  its  best  distinguishing  character.  Further  its 
terminal  buds  are  narrower,  showing  fewer  scales  and  the  twigs  are 
more  slender.  The  smooth-twigged  Green  Ash  [Fraxinus  pennsylvanica, 
var.  lanceolata  (Bork.)  Sarg.]  is  considered  by  the  best  authorities  only 
a  variety  of  the  Red.  The  Black  Ash  is  best  separated  by  its  char- 
acteristic scaly  bark  and  generally  black  buds. 

The  European  Ash  [Fraxinus  excelsior  L.]  is  frequently  cultivated.  It 
has  a  bark  resembling  that  of  the  White  Ash  and  has  a  pair  of  lateral 
buds  nearly  on  level  with  terminal  buds;  but  its  leaf-scars  are  semi- 
circular and  its  buds  jet  black. 

DISTRIBUTION — River  banks,  swampy  lowlands,  margins  of  streams 
and  ponds.  New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba;  south  to  Florida  and  Alabama; 
west   to    Dakota,    Nebraska,    Kansas,    and    Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — infrequent;  New  Hampshire — occasional, 
extending  as  far  north  as  Boscawen  in  the  Merrimac  valley;  Vermont — 
common  along  Lake  Champlain  and  its  tributaries;  occasional  in  other 
sections;  Connecticut — frequent;  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island — 
sparingly  scattered  throughout. 

WOOD — Heavy,  hard,  rather  strong,  brittle,  coarse-grained,  light 
brown  with  thick,  lighter  brown  sapwood  streaked  with  yellow;  some- 
times confounded  commercially  with  the  more  valuable  wood  of  the 
White  Ash. 


Red  Ash 


426  TREES   IN"  WINTER 


BLACK  ASH 
Hoop,  Swamp,  Basket  or  Brown  Ash. 

Fraxinus  nigra  Marsh. 
F.  sambucifolia  Lam. 


HABIT — A  tall  tree  60-80  ft.  in  height  with  trunk  diameter  of  1-2  ft., 
larg-er  further  south;  in  swamps  in  company  with  other  trees  with  tall 
slender  trunk  of  nearly  uniform  diameter  to  point  of  branching  sup- 
porting a  narrow  head;  in  the  open,  where  it  is  seldom  found,  said  to 
have  a  habit  similar  to  that  of  the  White  Ash. 

BARK — Ash-gray,  slightly  tinged  with  buff,  somewhat  furrowed  but 
generally  without  deep  ridges,  forming  thin  scales  smoothish  on  the 
outside  and  edges,  easily  rubbed  off  and  exposing  a  surface  rather  soft 
to  the  touch  suggesting  somewhat  the  feel  of  asbestos  or  talcum  powder; 
trunk  frequently  with   knobby   excrescences. 

TW^IGS — Very  stout,  similar  to  those  of  White  Ash  but  lighter  gray 
and    not   shiny. 

LiEAF-SCARS — Opposite,  large,  conspicuous,  circular  to  semi-circular; 
the  upper  margin  not  concave,  often  extending  upward  as  a  thin  flap 
partially   hiding  the   bud;   otherwise   resembling   the   White   Ash. 

BUDS — Resembling  those  of  White  Ash  but  generally  decidedly  black 
though  occasionally  rusty,  terminal  bud  ovate,  pointed,  as  long  as  or 
longer  than  broad,  more  or  less  flattened  at  right  angles  to  outer  pair  of 
scales,  last  pair  of  lateral  buds  generally  at  some  distance  from  the 
end  giving  terminal  bud  a  stalked  appearance.  BUD-SCALES — of 
terminal  bud  broadly  keeled  and  narrower  than  in  White  Ash,  generally 
only  1-2   pairs  visible. 

FRUIT — With  broad  wing,  distinctly  notched  at  apex,  surrounding 
the   flattened   seed-bearing  portion. 

COMPARISONS — The  Black  Ash  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
White  by  its  soft,  scaly  bark,  the  even  or  raised  upper  margin  of  its 
leaf-scars,  its  narrower  and  generally  black  buds,  and  the  stalked  ap- 
pearance of  its  terminal  bud.  When  growing  in  the  swamps  beside  the 
White  Ash  its  twigs  can  be  seen  to  be  much  stouter  and  fewer  than 
those   of   ttie   latter   species. 

DISTRIBUTION — Wet  woods,  river  bottoms,  and  swamps.  Anticosti 
through  Ontario;  south  to  Delaware  and  Virginia;  west  to  Arkansas  and 
Missouri. 

IN  NEW  ENGLAND — Maine — common;  New  Hampshire — south  of  the 
White  Mountains;  Vermont — common;  Massachusetts — more  common  in 
central  and  western  sections;  Connecticut — occasional;  Rhode  Island — 
infrequent. 

W^OOD — Heavy,  rather  soft,  not  strong,  tough,  coarse-grained,  durable, 
easily  separable  into  thin  layers,  dark  brown  with  thin  light  brown 
often  nearly  white  sapwood;  largely  used  for  the  interior  finish  of 
houses  and  cabinet-making,  and  for  fences,  barrel  hoops  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  baskets. 


c. 


--""lij 


Black  Asti 


428  TREES  IN  WINTER. 


HARDY  CATALPA 
Cigar  Tree,  Indian  Bean,  Western  Catalpa. 

Catalpa  speciosa  Warder. 


HABIT — A   tall    tree    reaching  100    ft.    in    height    and    4    ft.    in    trunk 

diameter    in    the    Ohio    basin,    of  smaller    dimensions    in    New    England, 

with    slender   branches,    forming  a   comparatively   narrow    round-topped 
head. 

BARK — Reddish    to   grayish   brown,    with    longitudinal   scaly   ridges. 

TWIGS — Stout,  smooth  or  slightly  short-downy,  reddish  to  yellowish- 
brown,  the  tips  of  twigs  generally  winter-killed.  LENTICELS — con- 
spicuous, rather  large  and  numerous.  PITH — white,  wide,  occasionally 
chambered  at  the  nodes. 

L.EAF-SCARS — Opposite  or  more  frequently  3  at  a  node,  large  and 
conspicuous,  round  to  elliptical,  with  depressed  center.  STIPULE-SCARS 
— absent.  BUNDLE-SCARS — conspicuous,  often  raised,  forming  a  closed 
ring. 

BUDS — Terminal  bud  absent,  lateral  buds  small,  semi-spherical,  gener- 
ally under  2  mm.  high.  BUD-SCALES — brown,  loosely  overlapping, 
about  5   or   6  visible. 

FRUIT — A  long  cylindrical  capsule,  8-20  inches  in  length,  with  nu- 
merous flattened,  winged,  white-hairy,  fringed  seeds,  persistent  on 
the  tree  through  winter.  The  photograph  of  the  capsule  is  reduced  to 
about   %   natural  size. 

COMPARISONS — The  3  large  circular  leaf-scars  at  a  node  with  com- 
plete ring  of  bundle-scars  render  the  Catalpa  twig  easily  recognizable. 
The  long  cigar-like  fruits  that  hang  on  the  tree  supply  a  distinctive 
habit  character.  A  very  closely  related  southern  and  less  hardy  species, 
the  Common  Catalpa  iCatalpa  hignonioides  Walt],  was  formerly  more 
planted  than  the  Hardy  Catalpa.  It  is  a  smaller  tree  with  a  rather 
more  spreading  habit  but  is  most  readily  distinguished  from  the  western 
species  at  the  time  of  flowering. 

DISTRIBUTION — Not  native  in  New  England  but  planted  as  an  orna- 
mental shade  tree  and  for  timber.  It  grows  native  along  borders  of 
streams  and  ponds  and  rich  often  inundated  bottom-land;  southern 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  south  into  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and 
Arkansas. 

WOOD — Light,  soft,  not  strong,  coarse-grained,  very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil,  light  brown  with  thin  nearly  white  sapwood  of  1  or  2 
layers  of  annual  growth;  largely  used  for  railroad  ties,  fence  posts 
and  rails  and  occasionally  for  furniture  and  the  interior  finish  of 
houses. 


Hardy  Catalpa 


430  TREES  IN"  WINTER. 


GLOSSARY 

Accessory  buds.  Buds  at  or  near  the  nodes  but  not  in  the  axil.  Of  two 
kinds,  collateral  and  superposed. 

Acorn.  The  complete  fruit  of  an  Oak  consisting  of  a  nut  partially  enclosed 
by  an  involucrate  cup. 

Adjacent.     Situated  in  close  proximity. 

Alternate.  Scattered  along  the  stem  ;  said  of  leaves  and  scales  in  distinction 
from  opposite. 

Apex.     The  top,   as  the  tip  of  the  bud. 

Appressed.  Lying  close  against  the  twig,  as  the  buds  of  the  Shad  Bush 
.(p.   359). 

Awn.     A  long  hair-like  point. 

Awl-shaped.     Small  and   Capering  to  a  slender  point. 

Axil.  The  angle  formed  at  the  upper  side  of  the  attachment  of  the  leaf 
to  the  stem. 

Axillary.  In  an  axil.  An  axillary  bud  is  the  first  bud  above  the  leaf  or 
leaf-scar. 

Bark.  The  outer  covering  of  the  trunk  or  branch.  Unless  otherwise  speci- 
fied, the  heading  "Bark"  in  the  descriptions  refers  to  the  bark  of  the 
trunk. 

Berry.     A  fruit  fleshy  throughout. 

Bloom.  The  powdery  waxy  substance  easily  rubbed  off,  as  the  bloom  on 
the  twigs  of  the  Box  Elder  and  cabbage. 

Bract.     A  more  or  less  modified  leaf. 

Branch.     A  secondary  division  of  a  trunk. 

Branchlet.     A  small  branch. 

Bud.  An  undeveloped  branch  or  fruit  cluster  with  or  without  a  protective 
covering  of  scales. 

Bud-scales.     Reduced  leaves  covering  a  bud. 

Bundle-scars.  Scars  of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  which  ran  up  through  the 
leaf-stalk  and  connected  with  the  veins  of  the  leaf,  seen  as  dots  in  the 
leaf-scar    (fig.    20). 

Bur.     A  spiny  fruit,  as  the  bur  of  the  Chestnut     (p.    297). 

Buttressed.  Said  of  the  trunk  when  enlarged  at  the  base  as  frequently  is 
the  case  in  the  White   Elm    (p.   327). 

Calyx.  The  outer  portion  of  a  flower  consisting  of  a  circle  of  modified 
leaves  usually  green  in  color. 

Capsule.     A  dry  fruit  which  splits  at  maturity  to  let  out  the  seeds. 

Catkin.  A  unisexual,  elongated,  compact  cluster  of  flowers  with  scaly 
bracts  usually  falling  away  in  one  piece,  as  in  the  Alders  (p.  293), 
Birches    (p.    281-291),    etc. 

Cell.  One  of  the  chambers  of  the  ovary.  One  of  the  microscopic  structural 
elements  out  of  which  plant  tissues  are  built  up. 

Chambered.  Said  of  the  pith  when  interrupted  by  hollow  spaces,  as  in  the 
Butternut    (fig.    101). 

Clustered.  Said  of  buds  when  several  are  produced  near  together  as  in  the 
Oaks    (p.    317). 


IDENTIFICATION  OP  TREES.  481 


Collateral  buds.  Accessory  buds  at  the  side  of  the  axillary  bud  as  in  the 
Red   Maple    (fig.    102). 

Concave.     Curved  with  the  upper  margin  depressed. 

Cone.     A  fruit  such  as  of  the  Pines  with  woody  closely  overlapping  scales. 

Confluent.  Said  of  bundle-scars,  when  the  separate  scars  are  so  close  to- 
gether that  they  appear  to  form  a  single  scar. 

Conical.     Cone-shaped,  largest  at  the  base  and   tapering  to  the  apex. 

Crown.     The  i;pper  mass  of  branches. 

Cup-shaped.     Shaped  like  a  cup ;   deeper  than  saucer-shaped. 

Deciduous.     Falling  away  ;  said  of  trees  that  drop  their  leaves  before  winter. 

Decurrent.     Said  of  ridges  that  run  down  from  the  leaf-scar. 

Deliquescent.  Said  of  a  tree  with  broad  spreading  habit  as  the  Apple 
(p.   353). 

Dioecious.  Said  of  plants  such  as  the  Willows  and  Poplars  that  have  separ- 
ate male  and  female  individuals. 

Divergent.  Said  of  buds  that  point  away  from  the  twig  as  in  the  Carolina 
Poplar    (fig.    100). 

Downy.     Covered  with  fine  hairs. 

Drupe.  A  stone-fruit  as  in  the  Cherries  with  the  seed  enclosed  in  a  stone 
or  pit  which  is  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  portion. 

Egg-shaped.     Shaped   like  an  eEE  with  the  broadest  part  below  the  middle. 

Elliptical.     Oblong  with  regularly  rounded  ends. 

Entire.     Margin  without  indentations. 

Epidermis.     The  outermost  layer  of  cells. 

Escape.     A  plant  originally  cultivated  but  now  growing  like  a  wild  plant. 

Evergreen.     With  green  leaves  in  winter,  as  the  Pines  and  Holly. 

Excurrent.  Said  of  a  tree  of  erect  habit  of  growth,  such  as  the  Spruce 
(p.    225)    or   Poplar    (p.    261). 

Fan-shajjed.     Shaped  like  an  expanded  fan. 

Fibro-vasctilar  bundles.  The  strands  containing  the  elements  for  the  trans- 
portation of  fluids  through  the  plant.  They  ultimately  connect  with  the 
veins  of  the  leaves. 

Flaky    (bark).     With  loose  scales  easily  rubbed  off. 

Flower  bud.     A  bud  containing  an  undeveloped  flower  or  flower  cluster. 

Fluted.     With  rounded  ridges. 

Follicle.     A  pod  which  opens  along  one  side  only. 

Fruit.     The  part  of  a  plant  containing  the  seeds. 

Gland.     A  small  protuberance,  as  on  the  leaves  of  the  Arbor  Vitae  (p.  243). 

Glandular.     Provided  with  glands. 

Habit.     The  general  appearance  of  the  tree  as  seen  at  a  distance. 

Habitat.  The  place  where  the  tree  naturally  grows,  such  as  swamps,  sandy 
plains,  etc. 

Hairy.     With  long  hairs. 

Head.     The  upper  portion  of  a  tree. 


432  TREES  IN"  WINTER. 

Heartwood.     The  dead  central  portion  of  the  trunk. 

Hoary.     Grayish-white  with  a  fine  close  down. 

Hybrid.     A   cross   between   two    species   or   varieties. 

Internode.     The  portion  of  the  stem  between  two  nodes. 

Inversely   triangular.     Inverted   triangular  with  the  apex  below. 

Involucre.     The  bracts  surrounding-  the  flower  cluster. 

Juvenile.     Youthful,  said  of  the  leaves  formed  in  the  early  stages  of  devel- 
opment. 

Keeled.     With  a  central  ridge  like  the  keel  of  a  boat. 

Key.     A  winged  fruit. 

Lanceolate.     Lance-shaped  ;     similar    to    ovate    but    narrower    with    outline 
tapering  gradually   to   the  apex. 

Lateral  hud.     A  bud  produced  on  the  side  of  a  twig. 

Leaf  bud.     A  bud  containing  undeveloped  leaves  but  not  flowers. 

Leaf-scar.     The  scar  left   by  the   fall   of  the   leaf   (fig.   20). 

Leaf-stalk.     The  stem  of  a  leaf. 

Lenticels.     Corky  spots  on  the  surface  which  admit  air  to  the  interior  of  the 
twig. 

Limbs.     The  larger  branches. 

Linear.     Long   and    narrow,    several    times    as    long   as    broad    with    parallel 
edges,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Pines. 

Lobed.     With  rounded  indentations  running  %  to  %  the  way  from  the  margin 
inward. 

Longitudinal.     Lengthwise. 

Medullary  rays.     Rays  of  tissue  extending  from   the  pith  toward  the  bark, 
best  seen  in  cross  section. 

Midrib.     The  central  vein   of  a  leaf. 

Mucilaginous.     Slimy  when  chewed. 

Naked   bud.     A  bud  without  bud-scales. 

Needle.     A  narrow  leaf  as  in  the  Pines. 

Node.     The  place  on   the  twig  at  which  one  or  more  leaves  were  produced 
(fig.    20). 

Niit.     A  large  hard  fruit  as  in  Hickory,  Oak  and  Chestnut. 

Nutlet.     A  small  nut. 

Oblanceolate.     Inverted  lanceolate. 

Oblong.     Two  or  three  times  longer  than  broad  with  about  uniform  diameter. 

Obovate.     Inverted  ovate. 

Opposite    (leaves   and    leaf-scars).     With   two   leaves   or   leaf-scars   opposed 
at  a  node. 

Oval.     Broadly  elliptical. 

Ovary.     The  part  of  the  pistil  producing  the  seeds. 

Ovate.     Egg-shaped,  with  the  broadest  part  below  the  middle. 

Persistent.     Remaining  on  the  tree. 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  TREES.  433 

Peripheral.     Situated  near  the  margin. 

Pistil.     The  seed-bearing  portion  of  the  flower. 

Pith.     The  softer  central  portion  of  a  twig. 

Pod.     A  dry  fruit  which  spUts  open  at  maturity. 

Pome.     A  fruit  like  the  Apple  or  Pear. 

Pungent.     Sharp  to  the  taste. 

Pyramidal.     Shaped  like  a  pyramid  with  broadest  portion  at  the  base. 

Raceme.     A  simple  cluster  of  stalked   flowers   arranged   along  an  elongated 
axis. 

Resin-duct.     A   tube  for   the   conduction   of   resin   seen   in   the   leaves   of   the 
Pines. 

Sapwood.     The  young  living  wood  outside  the  heartwood. 

Saucer-shaped.     Shaped   like  a   saucer,   shallower   than   cup-shaped. 

Scale.     A   small   modified    leaf   seen   in   buds   and   cones.      One   of   the   flakes 
into  which  the  outer  bark  often  divides. 

Scarious.     Thin,  dry  and  membranaceous,  not  green. 

Scurfy.     Covered  with  small  bran-like  scales. 

Sepal.     One  of  the  divisions  of  the  calyx. 

Sessile.     Without  a  stalk. 

Shrub.     A  low  woody  growth,  smaller  than  a  tree  and  generally  branching 
near  the  base. 

S^nooth.     Not  rough  nor  hairy. 

Spray.     The  aggregate   of  smaller  branches  and  branchlets. 

Spine.     A   sharp   rigid   outgrowth  from   the   stem. 

Spur.     A  short,  slowly-grown  branchlet. 

Stamens.     The  pollen-bearing  portions  of  a  flower. 

Staw,inate.     Having  stamens ;  said  of  trees  bearing  only  male  flowers. 

Sterile.     Not  producing  seed. 

Stipular.     Similar  in  form  or  position  to  stipules. 

Stipules.     Two   small   leaf-like  bodies   located   at   the   base   of   the   leaf-stalk 
in  some  species. 

Stipule-scar.     The  scar  left  by  the  fall  of  a  stipule   (fig.  100). 

Stomata.     Breathing  pores  in  leaves. 

Stone-fruit.     A  fruit  like  that  of  the  Cherry.     The  same  as  drupe. 

Strengthening  cells.     Thick  walled  cells  present  in  the  leaves  of  some  of  che 
Pines. 

Striate.     Longitudinally   streaked. 

Submerged.     Covered,  as  by  the  bark. 

Sucker.     A  shoot  arising  from  below  ground. 

Superposed  buds.     Accessory  buds  above  the  axillary  bud,  as  in  the  Butter- 
nut  (fig.   101). 

Surface-sectioned.     Cut  parallel  to  and  near  the  surface. 


434  TREES  IN  WINTER. 

Teeth.     Small  projections  along  the  margin. 

Terminal  bud.     The  bud  formed  at  the  tip  of  a  twig. 

Thorn.     A  stiff  woody  sharp-pointed  projection. 

Top-shaped.     Shaped  like  a  top  with  the  broadest  part  above. 

Tree.  A  woody  plant,  lai^ger  than  a  shrub,  from  which  it  cannot  always  be 
distinguished.  Usually  defined  as  a  woody  growth,  unbranched  near  the 
base  and   reaching  a   height  of  at  least  fifteen  feet. 

Triangular.     Shaped  like  a  triangle  with  the  base  below. 

Trunk.     The  main  stem  of  a  tree. 

Twig.  A  young  shoot.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  used  in  the  descriptions 
to  denote  the  growth  of  the  past  season  only. 

Type.  A  term  used  to  designate  the  characteristic  form  of  a  species  in 
distinction  from  its  varieties. 

Valvate.     Said   of  buds   in   which   the   scales   meet  without   overlapping. 

Whorl.     A  cluster  of  three  or  more  leaves  or  leaf-scars  at  a  single  node. 

Wing.     A  thin  flat  appendage. 

Woolly.     Covered  with  tangled  or  matted  hairs  resembling  wool. 


Library 
N.  0,  State  Collea:e 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


435 


INDEX 

Where  the  species  receives  its  most  extended  description,  the 
page  number  appears  in  boldface  type.  Where  the  species  is  other- 
wise mentioned,  the  page  number  is  printed  in  ordinary  type. 
Synonyms  of  both  common  and  scientific  names  are  printed  in 
italics  and  their  page  numbers  in  ordinary  type. 


Abele     252 

Abies    balsamea     236 

Acacia     388 

Three-thorned     382 

Acer     208 

yarhatiitn    402 

dasycarpum    404 

Key    to    Species    208 

Negundo    412 

pennsylvanicum    398 

platanoicles     408  - 

Pseudo-Platanus     410 

rubrum    406 

saccharinum     402' 

saccharinum     404 

saccharum    402 

var.  nigrum   402 

spicatum     400 

Aesculus : 

glabra    414 

Hippocastanum     414 

octandra    414 

Ailanthus 

46,  53,  79,  80,  81,  96,  153,  380,  390 
glandulosa    390 

Alder    ;292,    344 

European  Black   292 

Hoary    292 

Smooth    292 

Speckled    292 

Alligator-wood 346 

Alnus : 

incana     292 

rugosa     292 

vulgaris     292 

Alternate-leaved    Dogwood    .  .  .  .418 

Amelanchier    canadensis     3.58 

American : 

Aspen    254 

Beech     294 

Elm   89,   96,  172,  326 

Holly      39C 

Hornbeam  100,  186,  191,  276,  27H 

Larch     223 

Mountain  Ash 3.'t4 

Plum    3  72,    .^74 

var.   Gold    374 

Amygdalus  Persica    378 

Aphis 166 


Apple    20,    53,    55,    58, 

93,    135,    136,    157,    163,    170,    184, 
187,    332,    334,    350,   352,    356,    414 

Apple,    Thorn    360 

Arbor  Vitae    54,   242 

Art: 

Tree  study  in  relation  to   ....    13 

Ash    13,    33,    43,    45,    47,    48, 

49,  51;  132,  190,  192,  193,  209,  422 

American    Mountain    354 

Basket     426 

Black    188,    422,    424,   426 

Brown    424,    426 

European    13,    424 

European   Mountain    354 

Green     424 

Hoop     330,    426 

Key  to  Species    209 

Mountain    46,  53,  170,  354 

Prickly    388 

Red     424 

River     424 

SwamjJ     426 

Western  Mountain 354  ' 

White    66,  79,  81.  110,  186,  188,  192 
193,    272,    340,    408,   422,    424,    426 

Ash-leaved   Maple    412 

Aspen     254 

American    254 

Large-toothed    252,    254,  256 

Quaking    254 

Small-toothed    

190,    252,    254,    256,    258 

Austrian  Pine   218 

Back-yard    planting    93 

Bag   Worm    155 

Bald    Cypress    133 

Balm  of  Gilead 258 

Fir   236 

Balsam    236,    258 

Fir    101.    234,   236,   238 

Poplar 100,  254,  256,  258 

Banding    151 

Bark    185 

Bark-beetles     154 

Basket    Ash     426 

Bassivood    47,    110,    153,   416 

Bay: 

Swamp    207 

Sweet    207,    336,    338 


436 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Bean,   Indian    428 

Bear  Oak    308,   320 

Beaver   Tree    207 

Beech    36,   41 

48,    186,    278,    294,    358,    386,    406 

American    294 

Blue     278 

European    294 

Water    278 

Beetree    416 

Betula   203 

alba     ; 290 

var.  papyrifera 288 

Key  to  Species   203 

lenta    280 

lutea    283 

nig-ra    284 

papyrifera    288 

populifolia     286 

Big  Bud  Hickory 270 

Big  Tree 133 

Bilsted     346 

Birch    33,    36,    46,    47 

48,     50,     72,     134,     186,     187,     203 
Black  184,  186,   187,  280,  282,  284 

Canoe    288 

Cherry     280 

European  Paper 290 

European   White    290 

Gray    282 

Gray    72,  92,  286,  288 

Key  to  Species   203 

Old  Field    286 

Paper   ....186,  282,   286,  288,  290 

Poplar     286 

Poverty     286 

Red    282,  284 

River    50,    284 

Silver 282 

Small   White    286 

Sweet     280 

White    72,   92,   286,    288 

Yellow 186,  280,  282,  284,  288 

Bird    Cherry    366 

Bird's   Eye    Maple    402 

Bitternut    264,    266,   274 

Black : 

Ash 188,  422,  424,  426 

Birch  184,  186,   187,  280,  282,   284 

Cherry     362 

Gum    183,   420 

Knot    364 

Larch     222 

Locust     388 

Maple 402 

Oak    186,    312,    316,    318 

Oak  Group 186,  191,  204,  318 

Pine     218 

Scrub   Oak    320 

Spruce    101,   166 

216,    222,    224,    226,    228,    236,    242 


Black    (Continued) 

Walnut 49,   51,   264,  266,   390 

Willow     250 

Black-spot    disease    147 

Block  of  Oak  wood 42,  43 

Blue: 

Beech     278 

Oak    304 

Spruce 166,  224,  226,  230 

Bog  Spruce    228 

Bolting-    143 

Borer 80,   150,  151,   170,   176 

Maple    150,    170 

Maple  Leaf-stem    162 

Box  Elder   ..48,  80,  157,  406,  412 

Box  White   Oak    300 

Boxwood     418 

Bridg-e  grafting    138 

Bristly   Locust    388 

Broom   Hickory    272 

Brown  Ash   424,   426 

Brown-tail  Moth  151,  154,  155,   156 
Buckeye : 

Fetid    414 

Ohio 414 

Sweet     414 

Budding    58 

Buds     189 

Bud-scales      41 

Bur   Oak    .' .  .  .  33,    302,    346 

Bush    Maple     398,    418 

Butternut    7,    48,    49,    51 

187,    189,    190,    264,    266,    274,    390 

Buttonball    348 

Buttonwood     348 

Cabinet  Cherry 362 

Caliper    21 

Canada    Plum    372,    374 

Canker  Worm    152,    157 

Fall    157 

Spring     157 

Canoe  Birch 288 

Care  of 

Seedlings     51 

Trees    31,    114 

Carolina  Poplar   

9,   41,   46.   79,   80,   96,   153,   188 

189,    190,    193,    254,    256,   260,    262 

Carpinus    caroliniana    278 

Carya     203 

alba    268 

alba    270 

amara     274 

cordiformis     274 

glabra    273 

Key   to    Species    203 

microcarpa     272 

ovata     268 

porcina    272 

tomentosa     270 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


437 


Castanea : 
dentata 296 

sativa,  var.  americana 296 

Vesca    133 

var.    americana    296 

Cat   Spruce    224 

Catalpa    7,   9 

45,    46,    47,    48,    51,    81,    110,    428 

bignoni.oides     428 

Common    428 

Hardy    79,    80,    428 

speciosa     428 

Western    428 

Cavities : 

Filling  of   139 

Cedar    .46,    52,    240,    242,    246 

Coast  White   ..191,  240,  242,   246 

Red 240,  244,  246 

White     240,    242 

Celtis   occiden talis    330 

Cercis    canadensis    384 

Chaining     143 

Chamaecyparis  : 

sphaeroidea    240 

thyoides    240 

Cherry     46 

49,    53,    55,    93,    186,    187,   207,   280 

Amarelles     370 

Birch    280 

Bird     366 

Black     362 

Black  Tartarian 368 

Cabinet    362 

Choke    362,   364,    370 

Early  Richmond 370 

European  Bird    368 

Fire 366 

Key  to  Species   207 

Liouis   Philippe    370 

May  Duke    368 

Mazzard    368 

Montmorency     370 

Morello    370 

Napoleon    368 

Pie   370 

Pin 366 

Pigeon     366 

Rum     362 

Sour 184,  362.    364,   368,  370 

Sweet  69,  184,  362,  364,  368,  370 
Wild  Black    .  ,  .362,   364,   366,   370 

Wild  Red    364,   366,  370 

Windsor    :  .  368 

Chestnut    9,   37 

41,  48,  66,  69,  81,  133,  147,  148 
149,  157,  186,  188,  193,  296,  306 
Bark  disease  ...69,  147,  148,  149 

Oak    306 

Oak    79,    93,    306,    308,    310,    312 


Chinese : 

Magnolia    336,  338 

Sumach     390 

Chinquapin  Oak    ..9,    298,   306,   308 

Chinqiuipin  Oak   30'8 

Choke  Cherry    362,   364,  370 

Cigar  Tree 428 

City   Homes : 

Suggestions   for    89 

Types    of    89 

Cladrastis    lutea     386 

Clammy    Locust .388 

Coast  White  Cedar 

191,    340,   242,    246 

Cockspur    Thorn     360 

Coffee : 

Bean    380 

Nxit     380 

Coffee  Tree,   Kentucky   

48,    79,    99,    187,   380,   390 

Collecting  seeds    47 

Collections : 

Of   trees    24 

Students'     28 

Colleges,    tree   study  in    25 

Colorado   Blue   Spruce    230 

Combatting  insects,   method   of  150 
Common : 

Catalpa 428 

Juniper    244,    246 

Locust    48,    79,    81,    190,    382,    388 

Comparisons    191 

Conservation  of  scenery 61 

Control    of    Parasites    146 

Cork  Elm   ...99,   322,   326,  328,   346 

Cornel,  Floxoering    418 

Cornus : 

alternifolia  ' 418 

florida    418 

Cottonwo'od    260 

Cottony    Maple-scale    167,    168,    169 
Country  Roads : 

Location  of 64 

Problem   of    64 

Crataegus     360 

Crus-galli    360 

pruinosa    360 

Cucumber  Tree 81,  336,  338 

Large-leaved    207 

Cultivated  Plums   374 

Cultivation     115 

Cupressus   thyoides    240 

Curly   Maple    402 

Cuttings,  propagation  by 53 

Cydonia  vulgaris    3.16 

Deerioood    276 

Dehorning    trees     134 

Dime.rosi)orium    Collinsii    358 

Distribution      191 


438 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Dogwood    46,   418 

Alternate-leaved     418 

Flowering:     418 

Poison   394 

Double   Spruce    228 

Doug-las : 

Fir    133,   234,   236 

Spruce     234 

Downy   Poplar    202 

Dracaena    Draco    133 

Drag-on  Tree   133 

Dwarf : 

Chinquapin  Oak  298,  306,  308,  320 

Juniper     244 

Pear     55 

Sumach     392 

Ecology   of  Tree    19 

Elder : 

Box    48,    80,    157,   412 

Poison     394 

Elkivood   338 

Elm    17,    34,    35,    46,    48 

50,  51,  53,  69,  110,  125,  134,  143 
145,  153,  155,  157,  158,  162,  163, 
171,    179,    188,   206,    304,    330,    416 

American    SO,    96,    172,    326 

Cork    99,    322,    326,   328,    346 

Eng-lish 184,  324,  326,  328 

False     330 

Hickory     328 

Key  to  Species   206 

Moose    322 

Northern   Cork    326 

Red    322 

Rock    328 

Scale     168 

Slippery    322,   326,    328 

Water    326 

White    66,    78,    80,    81 

96,   172,    184,   322,   324,  326,   328 
Winged      328 

Elm-leaf  Beetle    

151,   154,   158,   159,    163 

Eng-lish : 

Elm 184.  324,  326,   328 

Oak    133 

Eucalyptus     133 

European : 

Ash   13,  424 

Beech     294 

Bird  Cherry 368 

Black   Alder     292 

Holly      396 

Larch     222 

Linden   80,  416 

Mountain    Ash    354 

Paper   Birch    290 

Plum    374 

var.   Lombard    374 


European  (Continued) 

Weeping-  Willow 250 

White   Birch    290 

White    Willow    250 

Evergreens  36,  41,  47,  48,  49,  72,  88 
92,    103,    132,    155,    163,    184,    195 
Fag-us : 

americana    294 

atropunicea    •.  .  .  294 

ferruginia     294 

g-randifolia .294 

sylvatica 294 

Fall: 

Canker  Worm 157 

Web   Worm    151,    163 

False  Elm    330 

Fertilizers    for    Trees    115 

Fetid   Buckeye    414 

Field  Work   26 

Filling   Cavities    139 

Fir    54,    99,    236 

Balm   of   Gilead    236 

Balsam    101,   234,   236,   238 

Douglas    133,   234,    236 

Red    234 

Scotch     220 

White    98 

Fire    Cherry    366 

Flowering : 

Cornel   418 

Dogwood 418 

Forest : 

Nursery    47 

Tent-caterpillar     163 

Fraxinus     209 

americana   193,  422 

Darlingtonii     424 

excelsior     424 

Key  to  Species    209 

nigra     426 

pennsylvanica      424 

var.   lanceolata    424 

pubescens    424 

sambucifolia    426 

Fruit     ' 190 

Trees,   varieties   for   home  plant- 
ing     101 

Fungicides    174,    176 

Fungus  troubles   146 

Ginkgo    79,    80,    103,    153,   248 

biloba    248 

'  Gleditsia    triacanthus    382 

Golden  Osier   250 

Goriher   Wood    386 

Graded  Schools,  tree  study  in  .  .    29 

Grafting    55,    56 

Bridge     138 

Cleft     56 

Whip   58 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


439 


Gray: 

Birch 72,  92,  386,  288 

Birch     282 

Pine 214 

Green  Ash    424 

Grills   112 

Growth  of  Tree    31 

Grubs     150 

Guarding  young   trees    110 

Guards    112 

Gum : 

Black    183,   420 

Red    346 

Sour    183,    420 

Sweet   79,   80,   153,  346 

Gymnocladus : 

canadensis      380 

dioica     380 

Gypsy   Moth    

151,   154,  158,   160,  161,   166 

Habit  of  Tree   183 

Hackberry    

46,    79,    80,    81,    153,    187,    330 

Hackmatack    222 

Hamamelis   virginiana    344 

Hard : 

Maple     402 

Pine     212 

Hardy  Catalpa   79,   80,   428 

Haw     360 

Hawthorn   46,   49,   53,   170,   360,   382 

Hazel,    Witch    344 

Heeling  in    102 

Height   measurer    22,    23,    24 

Hemlock    36,    72,    236,    238 

Spruce     238 

Hickoria : 

alha    270 

glabra    272 

minima    274 

ovata     268 

Hickory 33,   46 

48,    49,    51,    66,    110,    157,   203,   328 

Big    Bud     270 

Broom   272 

Elm    328 

Key  to  Species   203 

Pignut     272 

Shag-bark 186,  268,  270,  272 

Shell-hark     268 

Small-fruited     273 

Swamp    274 

White-heart   270 

High  Schools,  Tree  Study  in   .  .    25 

Hoary  Alder    292 

Holly    36,    46,    396 

American    396 

European    396 

White    396 


Home,   location  and   adaptation   70 

Honey  Locust    

9,    48,    79,    81,    173,    360,    382,    388 

Shucks     382 

Hoop  Ash    330,   426 

Hop  Hornbeam    ..46,    191,  276,  278 

Hornbeam     278 

American  100,   186,    191,   276,   278 

Hop    46,    191,   276,    278 

Seedling   of    33 

Horse    Plum    372 

Horse-chestnut    ..38,    39,   41,   45,   79 
80,   81,   96,   110,   153,   187,   188,  414 

Hypsometer    21,    22 

Identification  of  Trees    11,   183 

Ilex: 

Aquifolium     396 

Opaca    396 

Imported   Elm-tree   Borer    171 

Indian  Bean    428 

Injuries,   care   of    136 

Caused  by  gas  and  smoke    ..124 
Common   to   shade   trees    ....124 

from    careless    driving    129 

from    horse    bites    129 

from    improper    pruning     ....128 
from  improper  soil  conditions  132 

from  overhead  wires 125 

from   regrading   street    127 

from  wind   and  ice    132 

Sources    of     124 

Insects : 

Combatting,   method   of    150 

Control,    preventive    measures 

for    153 

Enemies   of    154 

Handpicking   of    151 

Leaf-eating    155,    177 

Shade    tree    154 

Spraying  for   151 

Sucking    166,    178 

Trapping     151 

Troubles      149 

Insecticides    174,    177 

Contact     175 

Iron   Oak    300 

Ironwood    276,    278 

Ivy,   Poison    394 

Jack  Pine    191,  214 

Japanese    Plum    374 

var.   Red   June    374 

Judas    Tree    384 

Juglans : 

cinerea    264 

nigra    266 

Juneberry     358 

Juniper   46,   54,   222 

Common    244,    246 

Dwarf     244 

Red    246 


440 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Juniperus : 

communis   _ 244 

var.    alpina    244 

var.  canadensis 244 

var.    depressa    244 

nana 244 

virginiana     246 

Kentucky   CofCee   Tree    

48,    79,    99,    187,    3S0,    390 

Key,  use  of 192 

to  Genera  and  Species    195 

Labrador   Spruce    224 

Lancewood     358 

Landscape    Picture    74 

Larch 38,  48,  162,  201,  248 

American    222 

Black     222 

European    222 

Key   to    Species    201 

Large-leaved : 

Magnolia    207,    336,    338 

Cucumher    Tree    207 

Umbrella   Tree    207 

Large-toothed    Aspen    252,   254,  256 

Larix     201 

americana     222 

decidua     222 

exiropaea     222 

Key  to  Species   201 

laricini     222 

Laurel  Magnolia    207 

Leaf    Beetle    69,    80,    163 

Leaf,    Function    of    35 

Leaf-eating  Insects    155,    177 

Leaf-scars 187 

Leopard    Moth    

153,    154,   171,   172,   173 

Leverwood 276 

Life  of  Tree 31 

Lime    13,    416 

Linden 66,   79,   80,    81,   296,   416 

European 80,  416 

Liquidambar    346 

Styraciflua      346 

Liriodendron  Tulipifera    340 

Location  of  the  Home    70 

Locust  45,   49,   51,   80,   153,    171,    388 

Black     388 

Bristly     388 

Clammy     388 

Common  48,  79,  81,   190,   382,  388 

Honey     

9,   48,  79,   81,   173,  360,  382,  388 

Siveet     382 

White     388 

Yellow 388 

Lombardy   Poplar    

...45,   79,    193,   254,   256,    260,  262 
Madura  pomif era    360 


Magnolia  38,   45,   107,   110,  207,  340 

acuminata     336 

Chinese    336,    338 

conspicua    336 

glauca   207 

Key  to  Species   207 

Laurel     207 

Large-leaved     207,    336,    338 

macrophylla 207 

Mountain    336 

tripetala    338 

Umbrella     338 

virginiana     207 

Mahogany     380 

Maidenhair    Tree    248 

Malus  Malus   352 

Maple 27,   33,   46,   48,    66,   110 

147,    153,    155,    158,    169,    171,    208 

Ash-leaved      412 

Bird's  Eye    -f .  402 

Black     402 

borer 150,  170 

Bush    398,    418 

Curly     402 

Hard    402 

Key   to    Species.   208 

Leaf-stem   Borer    162 

Mountain    398,    400,   406,    418 

Norway     

78,    80,    93,    162,    406,    408,    410 

Red    27,    50,   78,    80,   81 

93,   189,   190,   191,   402,   404,  406 

River 404 

Rock    402 

Silver 50,  78,   80,   81,   96 

132,  143,  145,  191,  402,  404,  406 

Soft    51,   404,   406 

Striped    398,    400,    406,    418 

Sugar    14,   15 

16,  17,  27,  36,  48,  50,  78,  81,  122 
125,  147,  162,  392,  402,  406,  410 

Swamp    '. 406 

Sycamore    

78,     80,     81,     162,     406,     408,     410 

White     404,    406 

Mazzard  Cherry    368 

Measurement  of  Tree   20 

Mockernut     268,     270,     272 

Moose   Elm    322 

Moosewood     398 

Morello  Cherry   370 

Morus    206 

alba 334 

Key   to    Species    206 

rubra     332 

Mossy-cup    Oak    302 

Mountain : 

Ash    46,   53,   170,  354 

Magnolia     336 

MoDle 398,  400,  406,   418 


TREES  IN"  WINTER 


441 


Mourning  Cloak   Butterfly    162 

Moving  Large  Trees   108 

Mulberry     . .  • 

46,   47,  49,  188,  189,  191,  206,  334 

Key   to    Species    206 

Red    9,    332,   334 

Silkworm    334 

White    332,    334 

Municipal  Control  of  Shade  Trees .  . 

81 

Name  of  Tree    183 

Necklace  Poplar 260 

Negundo : 

aceroides     412 

Negundo    412 

Nettle   Tree 330 

Nicker    Tree    380 

Northern  Cork  Elm 328 

Northern  Scrub  Pine 214 

Norway : 

Maple    ; 

..78,   80,   93,   162,   406,   408,   410 

Pine     216 

Spruce    166,    226,    232 

Nursery,  Forest   47 

Nyssa : 

multifiora     420 

sylvatica     420 

Oak    , 36,   43,    48,    51 

66,    110,    134,    153,    155,    161,    173 
186,    187,    191,    193,    204,   294,    296 

Bear   308,  320 

Black   186,   312,   316,  318 

Black   Scrub    320 

Blue     304 

Box  White 300 

Bur 33,  302,  346 

Chestnut '. 306 

Chestnut  79,  93,  306,  308,  310,  312 

Chinquapin     308 

Chinquapin    9,    298,    306,    308 

Dwarf    Chinquapin    

■    298,    306,   308,   320 

English   133 

Iron    300 

Key   to   Species    204  ' 

Mossy-cup    302 

Over-cup     302 

Pin  ..79,  80,  81,  93,  103,  110,  314 

Post    36,    298,    300 

Red     79,     SO 

81,    146,   296,   310,  312,   316,    318 

Rock    310 

Rock   Chestnut    310 

Scarlet     

78,    80,    81,    312,    314,    316,    318 

Scrub     308 

Scrub    Chestnut    308 

Swamp    314 


Oak   (Continued) 

Swamp    "White    

9,   184,    298,  304,  308 

White    33,    48,    78, 

81,    122,   186,  298,  300,   302,    304 

Wood   Block    42,   43 

Yellow     306,     318 

Yellow-barked     318 

Ohio  Buckeye    414 

Oilnnt    264 

Old- field  Birch    286 

Oriental  Sycamore    133,  348 

Osage  Orange    360 

Osier : 

Golden     250 

Ostrya   virginiana    276 

Over-cup   Oak    302 

Oyster-shell  Scale 167,  168 

Padus : 

serotina     362 

virginiana     364 

Paper  Birch  186,   282,  286,  288,  290 

Parasites,    control   of    146 

Parking   strips    78 

Parks     87 

Artificial   style    89 

Natural    type    87 

Peach    55,   170,    177,    207,   378 

Pear    53,   55,    58,   93,   157.   162 

170,    184,    187,    188,    336,   350,    352 

Dwarf      55 

Standard^ 55 

Peijperidge    183,    420 

Permanent    planting    79 

Photography    18 

Picea   201 

Abies   232 

alba    224 

brevifolia    228 

canadensis    224 

excelsa 232 

Key   to    Species    201 

mariana    228 

var.    semiprostrata    228 

menziessii 230 

nigra    228 

var.   rubra    226 

Parryana    230 

pungens     230 

rubens     226 

rubra     226 

Pie    Cherry    370 

Pigeon   Cherry    366 

Pignut    2G8,    272 

Hickory     272 

Pin   Cherry    366 

Oak  79,   80,    81,    93,   103,   110.   314 

Pine    72,    191,   201,   248 

Austrian    216,    218 

Black 218 


442 


tr:^es  in  winter 


Pine  (Continued) 

Gray    214 

Hard    212 

Jack    191,  214 

Key  to  Species   201 

Northern   Scrub    214 

Norway     216 

Pitch    210,  212,   216 

Red    210,    212,   216,    218 

Scotch    214,    220 

Soft    210 

Spruce     214 

Weymouth    210 

White    36,    45,    48,    66,    67, 

74,   134,   210,  212,   216,   220,   236 

Yellow     212 

Pinus     201 

Banksiana    214 

divaricata     214 

Key    to    Species    201 

Laricio,  var.  austriaca 218 

resinosa     216 

rigida     212 

Strobus    210 

sylvestris     220 

Pitch  Pine    210,  212,  216 

Plane  Tree 348 

Planting  of  Trees    31,   102,   105 

Back  yard 93 

Board   107,  108 

Conservaton    of   scenery    ....    61 

Filling-  in    107 

For   winter   effect    72 

In    cities    75 

In  rural  districts   61 

In    towns    75 

Making   the   hole    107 

Park    system     62 

Permanent     79 

Plan    72,    90,    94 

Roadside     68 

Seeds     50 

Street  trees    105 

Suggestions  for  city  home  ...    89 

Temporary   79 

Time   of    106 

Plant  Lice   150,   166,   175 

Platanus : 

occidentalis    348 

orientalis     348 

Plowrightia   morbosa    364 

Plum 49,    53,    55,    170,   207,   364 

American 372,  374 

var.   Gold    374 

Canada    372,    374 

Cultivated     374 

European    374 

var.  Lombard   374 

Horse     372 


PlumContinued) 

Japanese     374 

var.  Red  June 374 

Key  to  Species   207 

Red    372 

Wild     372 

Poetry,  tree  study  in  relation  to  13 

Poison : 

Dogwood 394 

Elder   394 

Ivy     394 

Sumach    186,    392,    394 

Poplar 36,  41,  45,  47,  48,  50,  53 

103,    110,    122,    132,    134,    162,    171 
184,    187,    188,    191,    202,   254,    256 

Balsam    100,    254,    256,   238 

Birch      2  86 

Carolina    

9,   41,   46,   79,   80,   96,   153,   188 

189,    190,    193,    254,    256,    260,    262 

Downy   Poplar    202 

Key  to  Species   202 

Lombardy     

45,    79,    193,    254,    256,    260,    262 

Necklace     260 

Silver    252,   254,    256 

Silver-leaf     252 

White     252 

Yellow     340 

Popple    254,    256 

Populus     202 

alba      232 

balsamif era    258 

canadensis    260 

candicans    258 

deltoides    260 

dilatata     262 

fastigiata    262 

grandidentata    256 

heterophylla     202 

Key    to    Species    202 

monilifera    260 

nigra,    var.    italica     262 

pyramidalis    262 

tremuloides    254 

Post  Oak    36,   298,   300 

Poverty    Birch    286 

Propagation     46 

by   budding    58 

by   cuttings    53 

by  graftage    55,    56 

from    seeds    46 

nature's    way    46 

Pruning : 

Before   planting    103 

Shade    trees     116 

Time   of    118 

Tools      121 

Prunus    186,   207,   372 

americana    ....      374 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


443 


Prunus    (Continued) 

'V(/-.    nigra    372 

avium    368 

Cerasus     370 

domestica    374 

Key   to    Species    207 

nigra 372 

pennsylvanica    366 

Persica     378 

serotina     362 

triflora     374 

virginiana .364 

Pseudotsuga : 

Douglasii    234 

mucronata    234 

taxif olia    234 

Public  Squares    87 

Artificial  Style    89 

Puddling-     102 

Pja-us : 

americana     354 

Aucuparia     354 

communis     350 

cydonia     356 

Malus     352 

sitchensis    354 

Qicaking    Aspen    254 

Quercitron    318 

Quercus     204 

acuminata 306 

alba    298 

bicolor     304 

coccinea     316 

var.    tinctoria    318 

ilicifolia     320 

Key  to  Species   204 

macrocarpa      302 

minor     300 

Muhlenbergii    306 

nana     320 

obtusiloba     300 

palustris    314 

pedunculata      133 

platanoicles     304 

prinoides     308 

var.  rufescens 308 

Prinus   310 

pumila     320 

rubra     312 

stellata    300 

tinctoria    318 

velutina     318 

Quince    55,   356 

Red: 

Ash     424 

Birch    282,   284 

Cedar 240,  244,  246 

Elm    322 

Fir   234 

Gum     346 

Juniper    246 


Red  (Continued) 

Maple    27,    50,   78,   80,   81 

93,   189,   190,    191,    402,   404,  406 

Mulberry    9,   332,   334 

Oak    79,    80 

81,   146,   296,   310,   312,  316,   318 

Pine    210,    212,   216,  218 

Plum    372 

-Spruce    224,   226,   228,    236 

Redbud    384 

Redwood     133 

Renovation  of  trees 133 

Reproduction      45 

Rhus    208 

copallina     3!>2 

glabra    392 

hirta    392 

Key  to  Species   208 

Toxicodendron     394 

typhina     392 

venenata     394 

Vernix 394 

River: 

Ash    424 

Birch    50,    284 

Maple     404 

Robinia : 

hispida     388 

Pseudo- Acacia     388 

viscosa     388 

Rock : 

Chestnut   Oak    310 

Elm    328 

Ma2)le     402 

Oak    310 

Root     33 

Rowan   Tree    354 

Rum   Cherry    362 

Salisburia   adiantifolia    248 

Salix : 

alba      250 

var.  vitellina   250 

babylonica    250 

nigra    250 

vitellina     250 

San   Jose    Scale    

150,   154,   167,    168,   170 

Sassafras    9,    46,' 186,   343 

officinale    342 

Sassafras    342 

variifolium 342 

Savin     246 

Saw-flies     162 

Scale  insects  150,  167,  168.  176,  177 

Scarlet    Oak    

78,    80.    81,   312,   314.  316,  318 

Scenery,  conservation  of   61 

Scotch : 

Fir   220 

Pine    214,   220 


444 


TREES  IN  WINTER 


Scrub : 

Oak    308 

Chestnut   Oak    308 

Scurfy  scale 167 

Seed: 

Collecting- 47 

Planting-    50 

Propagation   from    46 

Storing    48 

Testing    49 

Vitality  of   49 

Seedlings,   care   of    51 

Sequoia  gigantea   133 

Service : 

Berry 358 

Tree     354 

Setting    the    tree    106 

Shad    Bush    46,   338 

Shadblow    358 

Shade  Tree : 

Insects     154 

Municipal  control  of 81 

Shag-Bark    Hickory    

186,   268,   270,    272 

Shell-bark  Hickory    268 

Shrubs     71 

Sign-boards    63 

Silkivorni  Mulberry   334 

Silver : 

Birch    282 

Maple .  .50,  78,  80,   81,   96, 

132,  143,  145,  191,  402,  404,  406 

Poplar    232,    254,    256 

Spruce     230 

Silver-leaf  Poplar    252 

Skunk  Spruce    224 

Slippery   Elm    322,   326,    328 

Slugs     162 

Small   White  Birch    286 

Small-fruited    Hickory    272 

Small-toothed    Aspen    

190,    252,    254,    256,    258 

Smooth : 

Alder 292 

Sumach    390,   392 

Soft: 

Maple    51,    404,    406 

Pine     2L0 

Soil: 

Improving  condition  of 114 

Injuries  from  improper  condi- 
tions      132 

Need  of  humus  in 114 

Sorbus   americana    354 

Sour: 

Cherry    ..184,    362,    364,    368,   370 

Gum    183,    420 

Speckled  Alder    292 

Spiney  Elm  Caterpillar    162 


Spraying    174,   177 

for  insects    151 

machinery    178 

Spring  Canker  Worm   157 

Spruce  

33,   54,  72,  2,01,  214,   236,   238,   248 

Black    101,   166 

216,  222,  224,  226,  228,  236,  242 

Blue    166,   224,   226,   230 

Bog    228 

Cat     224 

Colorado  Blue 230 

Double     228 

Douglas     234 

Gall  Louse    166,    167 

Hemlock    238 

Key  to  Species   201 

Labrador 224 

Norway    166,    226,    232 

Pine 214 

Red    224,  226,  228,   23^ 

Silver     230 

Skunk    224 

Swamp 228 

Water    228 

White     166,    224,    226 

Staghorn  Sumach 390,  392 

Stakes   110 

Staking  the  ground  for  trees   ..106 

young  trees    110 

Standard  Pear    55 

Stem  of  Tree    38 

Stomach   poisons    174 

Storing   seeds 48 

Street  planting  suggestions  ....    76 
Striped   Maple    ..398,   400,    406,    418 

Structure  of  tree   31 

Study  of   tree    11 

Suburban    lot    92 

Sucking-insects    166,   178 

Sugar : 

Berry     330 

Maple    14,    15 

16,  17,  27,  36,  48,  50,  78,  81,  122 
125,  147,  162,  392,  402,  406,  410 

Sumach    208,   392,    394 

Chinese   390 

Dwarf    392 

Key    to    Species    208 

Poison    186,    392   394 

Smooth 390,  392 

Staghorn    390,   392 

Swamp     394 

Surgery,   Tree    134,    140 

Swamp : 

Ash    426 

Bay    . 207 

Hickory     274 

Maple 406 


TREES  11^  WINTER 


445 


Swamp    (Continued) 

Oak    314 

Spruce 228 

Sumach     394 

White  Oak  9,   184,    298,  304^   308 
Sweet : 

Bay   307,  336,   338 

Birch     280 

Buckeye    414 

Cherry     

69,    184,    362,    364,   368,   370 

Gum    79,    80,    153,    346 

Locust     382 

Sycamore  ..46,  47,  48,  66,  78,  80,  81 
133,    134,    153,    173,    186,    188,    348 

Maple    

78,    80,    81,    162,    406,    408,    410 

Oriental    133,  348 

Tacamahac     258 

Tamarack     222 

Tar-spot   disease    147 

TaxocHum  mucronatum 133 

Temporary   planting    79 

Tent-caterpillar 151,  163,  164 

Forest   163 

Thorn    360 

Api)le     360 

Cockspur     360 

Tree 382 

White    360 

Three-thorned  Acacia   382 

Thuja  occidentalis   243 

Tilia: 

americana    416 

Michauxii     416 

vulgaris     416 

Toothache    Tree    388 

Transplanting     ; 52 

Trapping   insects    151 

Tree  of  Heaven   390 

Trees : 

Adaptation  to  home    <,   70 

Age  limit    133 

Around  the  home 70 

Arrangement  on  street 77 

Avenue    100 

Bark  of 185 

Care  of   31,  114 

Collections    24 

Columnar    99 

Comparisons    191 

Cultivation  for    115 

Dehorning 134 

Distance  between 78 

Distribution  of    191 

Ecology  of 19 

Fertilizers    for    115 

For  calcareous  soils    101 

For  dry  conditions    100 

For  limestone  soils   101 


Trees     (Continued) 

For   seaside   planting    100 

For  special  purposes 96 

For  wet  soils    101 

Fiuit    190 

Function  of 71 

Growth  of    31 

Guarding  young   110 

Habit    of    183 

Heeling    in     102 

Identification    11,    183 

In   home   decoration    71 

Leaf-scars    187 

Life  of    31 

Measurement    of     20 

Moving  of    108 

Names    of    183 

Of    rapid    growth     80 

Ordering    of     102 

Parts,  description  of 31 

Photography    18 

Planting  of    31,    102,    105 

In  cities    75 

In   rural   districts    61 

In    towns    75 

Making  the  holes  for 107 

Parking   strips    78 

Puddling     102 

Pyramidal    99 

Renovation    of    133 

Reproduction  of   45 

Resistant   to   smoke    100 

Setting   of    106 

Shade     100 

Species    for   city   streets    ....    80 

Stem    of     38 

Structure   of 31 

Study 11 

Study   in   colleges    25 

Study  in  graded   schools    ....    29 

Study  in   high   schools    25 

Study  in  relation  to  art   ....    13 
Study    in    relation    to    poetry    13 

Surgery    134,   140 

Tall    99 

Twigs     187 

Valued  for  winter  effect 98 

Weeioing    99 

"With  brilliant  autumnal  tints  98 

With  showy  flowers    9* 

With   showy   fruits 97 

With  striking  colored   foliage   98 

Wood  of 191 

Tsuga   canadensis    238 

Tulip   Tree    27,   45 

66,  79,  81,  110,  133,  153,  338,  340 

Scale   167,   168,  169 

Tupelo    183,    184,    187,    420 

Tussock  Moth    151,   163 


446 


TREES  IK  WINTEE 


Twigs    of    Tree    187 

Ulmus    206 

alata      328 

americana    326 

campestris    324 

fulva    322 

glabra    324 

Key   to  ^  Species    206 

pubescens     322 

raceniosa 328 

Thomasi    328 

Umbrella    Tree 336,    338 

Large-leaved    207 

Viburnum     :.....  398 

Virgilia     386 

Vitality  of  seeds 49 

Walnut    48,    268 

Black 49,  51,  264,  266,  390 

White    264 

Water : 

Beech 278 

Elm    326 

Oak    314 

Spruce 228 

Western : 

Catalpa 428 

Mountain  Ash 354 

Weymouth  Pine   210 

WUstlewood 398 

White : 

Ash  66,  79,  81,  110,  186,   188  192, 
193,  272,  340,  408,  422,  424,  426 

Birch    72,   92,   286,    288 

Cedar   240,  242 

Elm    .66,   78,   80,   81 

96,   172,   184,   322,   324,  326,  328 

Fir     98 

Holly     396 

Locust     388 

Maple   404,  406 


White  (Continued) 

Mulberry   

.332, 

334 

Oak   33,   48,   78 

,  81, 

122 

186,  298,  300,  302,  304, 

310, 

312 

Oak  Group  186,  204,  298, 

308, 

310 

Pine    36,    45,    48,    66 

,    67 

74,   134,  210,  212,    216, 

220, 

236 

.252 

Spi'uce    .• 166, 

224, 

226 

Thorn    

.360 

Walnut    

.264 

White-heart  Hickory 

.270 

White-marked  Tussock  Moth  .  . 

.165 

Whitewood 

.340, 

416 

Wild: 

Black  Cherry  .  .362,  364, 

366, 

370 

Plum    

.376 

Red  Cherry    364, 

366, 

370 

Willow    41,    45,    48,   50 

1,    53 

110,    122,    131,    132,    134, 

162, 

250 

Black     

.250 

European  Weeping-    

.... 

.250 

European  White 

.  .  .  . 

.250 

Yellow     

250 

Winged   Elm    

.328 

Witch  Hazel    



.344 

Witches'   Brooms    



.358 

Wood  of  Trees    

.  .  .  . 

.191 

Woolly   Maple   Scale    

.167, 

169 

Work  in  Field 

.... 

.    26 

Wounds,   care  of    



.122 

Yellow : 

Birch 186,  280,  282, 

,  284, 

288 

Locust 

388 

Oak 

.306, 

318 

Pine     

.212 

Poplar     

.340 

Willow    

.250 

Yellow   Wood    

.386 

YelloiD-barked  Oak    .  . 

.318 

Zanthoxylon  americanum 

.388 

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